eChapters

Time, Speed and Distance

This section consists of problems on calculating speed, distance, time, head start and relative speed etc.

Spider lily (Hymenocallis littoralis) is a perennial bulbous plant distinguished by its fragrant white flowers, central corona and spider-like appearance. It is an important commercial loose flower crop in western India, particularly Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, where flowers are used for garlands, Veni, Gajra and ceremonial decoration. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics. It explains climate and soil requirements, bulb propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Pest and disease management, harvesting and postharvest handling are also detailed. The chapter includes storage techniques for flower buds and discusses the long productive life and commercial yield potential of the crop.

Stakeholder is an individual or group that has an interest in any decision or activity of an organization. A stakeholder is a member of groups without whose support the organizationwould cease to exist. Stakeholders are important to every project. Stakeholders are very important because they can have a positive or negative influence on the project with their decisions. A stakeholder is either an individual, group or organization who is impacted by the outcome of a project.

Loose flowers play a vital role in Indian floriculture owing to their extensive use in religious ceremonies, festivals, social functions, decoration, garland making and perfumery. The book “Commercial Production of Loose Flowers” has been prepared for the students of M.Sc. (Hort.) Floriculture and Landscaping, B.Sc. (Hort.) and B.Sc. (Ag.) to provide a comprehensive understanding of the scientific and practical aspects of loose flower production. The book covers the scope and status of the loose flower industry. Commercial Loose flower crops like Marigold, Jasmine, Rose, Chrysanthemum, Tuberose China Aster, and Crossandra described well in this book. Apart from that new potential and emerging loose flowers i.e. Barleria, Celosia, Gaillardia, Gardenia, Gomphrena, Hibiscus, Ixora, Madar, Magnolia, Tabernaemontana, Nerium, Nyctanthes, Balsam, Spider Lily, Water Lily, Lotus, etc., has been presented systematically with complete package of practices. The book also comprehensively covers marketing, export potential, APMC, online trading, institutional support and crop insurance. It is hoped that this book will serve as a valuable reference for students, teachers, researchers, and floriculture entrepreneurs. I am eternally grateful to all the individuals and informants who have helped me in the writing of this book. I extend my sincerest appreciation initially to Dr. Panjab Singh, Chancellor, Rani Lakshmibai CAU (Jhansi), Ex. Secretary DARE GOI & DG ICAR (New Delhi), Ex. Vice-Chancellor, BHU (Varanasi), whose steadfast mentorship, grace, and motivation turned this manuscript into reality

Introduction

India is the largest banana producer in the world. They grow bananas on an area of 9 million hectares and get 36 MT per hectare. India exported 2,000,000 MT of banana worth $1 billion to other nations. The banana production system supports the labour market, alternative food system, export eco-system, and nutritional security, among other things. The development of climate-resilient banana varieties, tissue culture protocols, macro-propagation, ornamental bananas, micronutrient mixtures, site-specific nutrient management, biocontrol agents for pest and disease control, robust virus diagnostic kits, and so on are all highly recommended and encouraged to make the banana industry sustainable and profitable in the long run. Technologies and products for use after harvest are also vital. Branding, supporting entrepreneurship via incubation platforms, marketing intelligence, and handholding for technical support are necessary to sustain banana production and drive value addition. Bananas and plantains, more than any other fruit or vegetable, constitute a staple food for millions of people worldwide and contribute to a healthy diet. In addition to carbohydrates, it's a wonderful source of potassium, vitamins, and minerals. The fat-free fruit has a calorie count of 90 per 100 grams. Dessert bananas are normally eaten raw, while plantains or cooking bananas are commonly prepared in a variety of savoury ways, such as boiling, steaming, frying, or roasting. The banana industry has expanded in recent years, making a greater contribution to the economy in terms of both employment and food supply.

Agronomic Research

Statistical tools are used in all branch of agriculture. It is mainly used for efficient planning of experiments and for interpreting experimental data. A good researcher should be aware of statistical techniques, which helps not only summarization of data but also interpretation of data.

10.1. Parameters Used in Statistics

Population

The aggregate or totality of all possible objects possessing the specified characteristic is called a population. Thus, a population may consist of all plants in a plot or field.

Sample

A portion of the population is known as sample. For statistical inferences about a population from a sample, it is essential that the samples are representative of the population.

Structure of a business or legal framework

1. Sole proprietorship: A private company is a form where an individual is the exclusive proprietor of the business. It constitutes a straightforward setup where the owner is one person who manages the everyday operations of the company. In this case, the business is not regarded as an independent entity. Therefore, earnings and debts are merged into their personal accounts, which are assessed and taxed at the individual level.

Advantages of the sole proprietorship structure include

• Complete Control: As a sole proprietor, you have the right to make all business decisions and do not have to negotiate with other partners, managers or shareholders as in other structures.

• Easier Startup: The creation of a private company does not necessitate completing forms or remitting a state fee. This can ease the procedure and render it more affordable.

• Simple tax reporting: Because a business is not legally a separate entity, your income tax return includes the expenses and income of the business. As an added bonus, you can use business losses to offset your earned income, which can result in a higher taxable income.

• Privacy: Sole proprietors do not have to file annual reports with state or federal governments. Therefore, the company is not disclosed in the same way as in other structures.

Introduction

Farmers Producer Organisations are associations of farmers and other rural producers formed based on membership to advance the members' common interests, engage in mutually beneficial technical and economic activities, and foster and sustain relationships with other organisations active in the same economic and institutional sphere. Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO) are a way for farmers, especially those on the margins of the industry, to band together and establish a strong front against the myriad problems plaguing the agricultural sector, including a lack of capital, knowledge, and access to markets. To better organise farmers, increase their ability to pool their resources, and increase their competitive edge in the marketplace, the Indian government's Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) has determined that Farmer Producer Organisations incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 are the best vehicle for doing so.

Background

More than 85% of India's 12.5 million agricultural households are classified as small and marginal farmers because they own less than two hectares of land. Every farmer, on average, owns 1.33 hectares of land. For farmers, investing in cutting-edge farming techniques and high-yielding inputs like seeds and fertiliser is simply not feasible in the current economic climate. They also don't make much money off their marketable surplus when they sell it off piece by piece. One strategy for farmers to reduce the cost of inputs and increase their bargaining position in the marketplace is to form Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs).

The unpredictable and frequently tumultuous nature of events affecting farming and rural life, such as weather patterns, market fluctuations, and policy changes, is referred to as uncertainty and chaos in agricultural extension, particularly with regard to livelihoods. These factors can interfere with farmer income and agricultural output, making it difficult for extension agencies to offer consistent assistance. Adaptive management techniques, such as encouraging diversified farming methods, boosting early warning systems for weather and market trends, and improving education and training for resilience development, are necessary to address these problems. Data-driven decision-making, adaptable policy frameworks, and cooperative efforts with local communities can all aid in managing uncertainty and averting chaos, which will eventually support more stable and sustainable livelihoods for farmers.
Objectives
1. To delineate the present status of transforming and transformed livelihood in present terrains of social ecologies.
2. To find the factors contributing to transformation dynamics of rural people.
3. To estimate the intra and inter level interaction amongst and between the sets of dependent and independent variables.
4. To delineate micro-level policy based on empirical studies and deliver its implication to other social ecologies.
For the study, a total of 21 independent variables and 5 dependent variables were chosen, and each was examined using a structured interview schedule or precise scales created by earlier social science researchers for the study’s requirements.
Independent variables selected for the study are, age (x1), education (x2), family size (x3), sex ratio (x4), cost of energy consumption (x5), cost of smart phone maintenance(x6),cultivated land (x7), homestead land (x8),irrigated land (x9), cropping intensity (x10), crop diversity index (x11), yield of crop(x12), cost of cultivation (x13), on farm income (x14), off farm income (x15), total annual

Supply

Supply refers to the good being sold at a specific price and moment.

Supply is the quantity of a commodity that is actually made available for purchase at a specific price and moment. The various quantities of a commodity that would be available for sale at varying prices are referred to as the supply schedule.

Supply schedule of Rice The supply schedule for the whole market is called market supply. It is arrived at by adding the quantities supplied by all the sellers at varying prices. The increasing portion of the marginal cost curve is used to create

14.1. Meaning
Supply in agriculture refers to the availability of agricultural products, both raw and processed, for distribution to markets, consumers, or other industries. This includes crops, livestock, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, and other agricultural goods. “Supply is the amount of a commodity that sellers are able and willing to offer for sale at different price per unit of time”.
In the words of Meyer “Supply is a schedule of the amount of a good that would be offered for sale at all possible price at any period of time; e.g., a day, a week, and so on”.
14.2. Stock
Stock in agriculture refers to the quantity of inputs and resources available for farming, such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, and livestock. It encompasses all the assets and materials that a farmer or agricultural operation has on hand to support the production process.
“Stock is meant the total quantity of a commodity this exists in a market and can be offered for sale at a short notice”. 14.3. Stocks Vs Supply
• Supply may be defined as the active stock (actual quantity) which is made available for the consumers at the prevailing market prices.
• Supply is flow concept.
• Stock is the quantity of different commodities which are stored; they are made available to the consumer when there are favourable prices.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

ABSTRACT

Sweet Corn (Zea mays var. saccharata var. rugosa) also called Indian corn, sugar corn, and pole corn is a kind of maize having high sugar content (12 – 15%). It is a very delicious and rich source of energy, vitamin A and vitamin C. It is consumed as raw, boiled or steamed green cobs/ grain. Cooked/ processed sweet corn has significant antioxidant activity which has been suggested to minimize the chance of heart disease and cancer. In addition to this, it is also utilized in preparation of soup, salad and other famous recipes. Besides green cobs, the green fodder is also available to the farmers for their cattle. It requires deep fertile and good drainage loam or sandy loam soil with neutral pH. It germinates best at the temperature range from 20^°C - 25^°C. Green cobs are harvested after 20 days of pollination during kharif but the days may accorded by season to season. It is ready to harvest in 70-75 days during kharif season and 105 – 110 days during rabi season. After harvesting, green cobs should be immediately transported to the cold storage in refrigerated trucks to avoid the conversion of sugar to starch because loses flavor at high temperature. Being a short duration crop (70-80 days), farmer can earn 2.0 to 2.5 lac rupees per hectare because it require less input i.e. water, manpower and other crop management practices. Therefore, it can generate a good employment for rural youthdue to high demand in hotels for preparation of various dishes.

SWOT Analysis-Concept

Concept of SWOT

The concept of SWOT surfaced in 1960 as, management tool indicating four dimensions of strength, weakness, opportunity and threat and is widely used in business organizations. It’s use is very common in judging the prospectus of any organization particularly rural projects. It’s four attributes have wider applicability to decide whether to move ahead or not.

Origin of SWOT

SWOT Analysis – Concept, origin and evolution
While working on a research project at the Stanford University sometime around 1960s to 1970s, Albert Humphrey developed an analytical tool to evaluate the strategic plans and find out why corporate planning failed. He coined this technique as SOFT analysis where –
• S stood for what things are Satisfactory at present,
• O denoted what Opportunities can be explored in the future,
• F meant the Faults in the present and
• T signified the Threats that could surface in the future.
While the majority agrees that SOFT is the predecessor of SWOT, some people believe that the concept of SWOT analysis emerged separately and has nothing to do with SOFT.
How SWOT evolved from SOFT?
The first mention of the term SWOT can be traced back to the Long Range Planning seminar held in Zurich in 1964. In this seminar Urick and Orr proposed the concept of SWOT analysis which was derived from SOFT by replacing the F for faults with W for Weaknesses. With its initial promotion in the Britain, the concept soon gained recognition among strategic planners and management consultants the world over. The new interpretation of SWOT, the way it is used these days, differs slightly from that of SOFT.

Tabernaemontana, commonly known as Chandni, Crape Jasmine or Pinwheel Flower, is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its pure white flowers. Its flowers are extensively used for garlands, decorations, weddings, hair adornment and religious offerings. Unopened buds can also serve as a substitute for jasmine during its off-season. The chapter covers origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important cultivars, including single and double forms. Production practices include climate and soil management, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural operations. The chapter also addresses pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest treatments, storage and yield, with emphasis on maintaining flower freshness and commercial quality.

Tax

A tax is a mandatory fee or fnancial charge levied by any government on an individual or an organization to collect revenue for public works providing the best facilities and infrastructure. The collected fund is then used to fund different public expenditure programs.

Direct and Indirect taxes

Types of tax system

1. Proportional tax: No matter the tax base’s relation to income size, the tax rate is always the same proportion. Taxing is according to the proportion of income. In this system poor people will be hit hard.
2. Progressive tax: Distribution of tax in a more just manner. People with higher income are charged with higher rates of tax. Eg. Income tax.
3. Regressive tax: Burden of payment will be more on poor. Taxes are charged from the poor at a higher rate than from rich. Ex. Commodity taxes – Affects poor rather than rich.

Introduction

With the growing population, increase in demand, and per capita income, tremendous pressure is put on the supply side, pushing them to rely on unsustainable practices to meet this existing and future demand. Compromising on sustainability has not only been responsible for climate change but also other negative environmental externalities. The modern agricultural corporate structure known as agribusiness, which can introduce sustainable and innovative technology into the agricultural sector, would pave the way for achieving all the sustainability dimensions, viz., social, economic, and environmental. With this expanding agribusiness sector, farmers can create a win-win alliance that maintains environmental harmony and financial success. There seems to be a huge scope to achieve sustainability goals well in advance by exploring the pathways with the help of the agri-business sector.

As the global population continues to grow, there will be an ever-increasing demand placed on the agricultural industry to provide more food as well as other raw materials. It is anticipated that farmers will need to produce 70% more food than is currently cultivated to feed up to 10 billion people by the year 2055 (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012). However, the situation is aggravated due to shrinking cultivated areas, depletion of natural resources, higher production costs, fewer farmers, and climatic changes. We are in the middle of a perfect storm of social, economic, and environmental pressures on the food supply around the world. Along with the increasing production and productivity, it has to be taken care of that the natural resources and environment are not exploited indiscriminately. Agriculture is both a threat to climate change and a possible way to stop it. Therefore, sustainability in agriculture is the only way forward. This commitment rests not only with the governments but with all the players in the agricultural supply chain. A holistic approach that concurrently tackles issues of environmental integrity, social equality, and economic prosperity is what we mean when we talk about sustainability. Over the course of the previous few decades, its significance to businesses operating in virtually all fields has grown substantially.

Introduction

Over the course of past decades India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world with a robust growth and transformations in its economy. In this journey subsidies played a crucial role in influencing market behaviour, support industries, address market failures, and achieve social and economic objectives of the country. Now what actually the economic subsidies are.

Subsidies are financial incentives provided by governments to individuals, businesses, or industries in the form of cash, grants, or tax breaks to influence economic behaviour and outcomes. They aim to correct market failures, promote specific industries, encourage production, and address economic challenges. Subsidies can be direct (cash payments) or indirect (tax breaks), benefiting recipients by reducing burdens or promoting certain actions. They are in the public interest, supporting social goods or economic policies.

The importance of subsidies lies in their ability to offset market failures and externalities, leading to greater economic efficiency. By providing financial aid, subsidies can stimulate production, increase supply, lower prices for consumers, and drive economic growth in targeted sectors. They play a crucial role in stabilizing economies, responding to economic shocks, and promoting long-term economic stability. Subsidies can also help governments address poverty, encourage investment in research and development, and support essential industries like agriculture, energy, and healthcare.

ABSTRACT

Economic growth of a country depends upon the skills of its people and the application of knowledge, inherited or acquired by them. Optimum utilization of human resources undoubtedly leads to considerable degree of economic development of a country. There are over one billion youth (aged 15 – 24) in the world today. Eighty five (85) per cent of these youth live in the developing world, where 99 per cent of population growth is occurring. Around 50 per cent of the population in developing countries live in rural areas. Some 61.5 per cent of youth live in Asia. Many youth are unable to reach their potential because of poverty and associated hunger and poor health. Also, education and training is often of poor quality and is irrelevant and inappropriate for the needs of rural youth and of the labour market. So although many youth today are more educated than their parent’s generation, they often do not possess employable skills. Even when good education and training are available and youth have been well trained, obstacles still exist, such as social customs (for example, caste and traditional values), lack of support mechanisms and lack of access to capital. Corruption is also a problem, as are structural impediments (institutional and governmental). Also, because youth numbers are growing faster than the rate of job creation, too few decent employment opportunities are available for the number of youth seeking them. The result is that a large number of youth are unemployed or underemployed. Not only do these youth lack income, they lack a means of gaining respect and a sense of belonging in their communities. Inability to find decent employment means youth often find employment in the informal sector, with poor working conditions and pay. Rural youth will often look to urban areas for employment and move to cities that adversely affect the household farming in India.