eChapters

Increasing pressure on freshwater resources has created interest in the use of saline water for agricultural production, particularly where high-quality irrigation water is limited. This chapter examines the management possibilities associated with using saline water while addressing the risks of salinity to soil and crops. It focuses on the role of selected nutrients and soil amendments in improving crop performance under saline conditions. The roles of potassium and phosphorus are discussed in relation to plant nutrition and tolerance to salinity. Zinc is also considered for its importance in maintaining plant nutritional balance under saline conditions. The chapter further examines gypsum as an amendment and its role in managing saline soil conditions. Organic matter is discussed for its contribution to soil physical, chemical and biological properties, while biofertilizers are considered as a component of management under saline environments. The integrated use of nutrients, amendments, organic materials and biological inputs provides approaches for improving the productivity of saline soils. The chapter therefore links saline-water use with appropriate soil and nutrient management for sustainable crop production

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

Introduction

A thematic layer is defined as a layer with a set of logical feature data placed under single theme such as soil type, pH level, salinity, and water table. The features in these layers determine real world objects and are created using geometries such as points, lines and polygons (Tickoo 2017). Thematic layering is the spatial representation of analyzed data of elements that belong to the same type. Thematic maps are used to create these layers, which show how one or more specific data themes vary across different geographic areas.

Maps make it easier to interpret and communicate the results of any GIS analysis. R has a large number of packages for making thematic maps. Static mapping is straightforward with plot()methods provided by core spatial packages sf and raster. The use of plot() function have been discussed in the previous chapters. Another package for mapping isspwithspplot() having enough options for producing good quality thematic maps.It is also possible to create advanced maps using ggplot2. This chapter discusses, separately, preparing thematic maps from vectors and rasters with the above mentioned packages. A dedicated map-making package tmaphas been given special focus in this chapter.

Permeability is a fundamental concept in food packaging, shaping the protective capabilities of packaging materials by determining the extent to which gases and vapors can move through them. This property plays a crucial role in preserving food freshness, safety, and quality by controlling the interaction between the food product and its surrounding environment. Understanding permeability is essential in designing packaging solutions tailored to the specific requirements of different food products, as improper permeability can lead to accelerated spoilage, nutrient degradation, and undesirable changes in texture and flavor. In this chapter, we explore the science of permeability in food packaging, breaking down its core principles, the behavior of different gases and vapors in various packaging materials, and the factors influencing permeability. Additionally, we examine how permeability impacts shelf life and consumer satisfaction, offering insights into selecting materials for specific food types. By understanding and manipulating permeability, food manufacturers can develop packaging that optimally balances protection and breathability, extending product shelf life and ensuring quality

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution that is often due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. The Ganges Delta’s usage of deep tube wells for water delivery has raised awareness of the issue because it has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in significant numbers of people. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which is followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, anthropogenic sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Six West Bengal districts with a combined area of 34000 km2 and a population of 30 million have been determined to have groundwater levels of arsenic over the WHO maximum allowable limit of 0.05 mg l1. (Alam et al.,2002)

At present, 37 administrative blocks by the side of the river Ganga and adjoining areas are affected. Areas affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater are all located in the upper delta plain and are mostly in the abandoned meander belt. More than 800 000 people from 312 villages/wards are drinking arsenic-contaminated water and amongst them, at least 175 000 people show arsenical skin lesions. Thousands of tube well water in these six districts have been analysed for arsenic species. Hair, nails, scales, urine, and liver tissue analyses show elevated concentrations of arsenic in people drinking arsenic-contaminated water for a longer period. Arsenic comes from a geological source. Only a few soil strata have high arsenic contents, which are determined to be linked to iron-pyrites according to investigations of bore hole silt. Arsenical skin lesions in various areas cause a variety of societal issues. (Das et al.,1996)

• A machine is a device which receives some sort of energy and does some work.
• A rigid link is one, which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
• A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
• A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies having no relative motion between them.
• A turning pair has a completely constrained motion.
• Cam and follower includes higher pair.
• The lower pairs are self-closed pair.

Introduction

The age-old necessities of life are food, clothing and shelter. The 20^th century had dramatized a fourth-energy. Energy starvation of the technological complex that maintains modern society may soon be as crucial a problem as feeding the hungry. Indeed, energy starvation could well precipitate more wide spread food starvation. Solutions for the energy crisis are strongly dependent on the technology of how energy is produced and used. To make a physical change in the world it is necessary to use four resources: energy, matter, space and time. How well a task has been performed can be measured in terms of amount of fuel consumed, the mass of material used, the space occupied, the hours of labour to accomplish it, and the ingenuity with which these resources are utilized. Squandering of irreplaceable energy resources, waste of materials, or large expenditure of space and time cannot be tolerated if the necessities of life are to be provided for all. Energy is intricately linked to development of a country. Growing demand on account of industrialization, urbanization, transportation and also increase consumption in rural areas is putting added pressure on energy supply network. Electricity generation has been increased from 1,400 MW in the year 1947 to 303,118 MW up to August 31, 2016 in India but still there is 10-15% shortage of power in peak hours and all villages are not electrified. Even many electrified villages receive 6 to 8 hours of electricity per day in India. To overcome this shortage there is a need to utilise new and renewable sources of energy. Fortunately, India is blessed with abundant solar energy. The arid parts of India receives much more radiation as compared to the rest of country i.e. maximum solar radiation i.e. 7600-8000 MJm^-2 (2111-2222 kWhm^-2) per annum, followed by semi-arid parts, 7200-7600 MJm^-2 (2000-2111 kWhm^-2), per annum and least on hilly areas where solar radiation is still appreciable i.e. 6000 MJm^-2 (1667 kWhm^-2) per annum (IMD 1985). In this chapter review of different solar thermal technologies in Indian perspective has been carried out.

Introduction

Solar air heating is the conversion of solar radiation to thermal heat. The thermal heat is absorbed and carried by air which is delivered to a living or working space. The transparent property of air means that it does not directly absorb effective amounts of solar radiation, so an intermediate process is required to make this energy transfer possible and deliver the heated air into a living space (Fig.10.1). The technologies designed to facilitate this process are known as solar air heaters. Solar air heating technologies use only free, renewable and clean energy and can help defray the rising cost of conventional energy.

Introduction

Therapeutic foods are products, which are multiutility food products that may be used as nutrition as well as medicine. A nutraceutical may be defined as a substance, which has physiological benefit or provides protection against chronic disease. Nutraceuticals are used to improve health, delay the aging process, prevent chronic diseases, increase life expectancy, or support the structure and/or function of the body. Oflate nutraceuticals are receiving considerable interest due to potential nutritional, safety and therapeutic effects. The examples of therapeutic foods are the foods used for feeding of malnourished children on an emergency basis or to supplement the diets of persons with special nutrition requirements, such as the elderly. Therapeutic foods can also form a part of treatment/prevention/reduction of other health conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, anaemia and any other lifestyle disorders.

The incidences of diet-related diseases are progressively increasing due to greater availability of calorie-rich foods and a sedentary lifestyle. Obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and neurodegeneration are major diet-related diseases. Nutraceuticals and functional foods represent a novel therapeutic approach to prevent or attenuate diet-related diseases.

There is always a requirement for cheaper formulations using locally available ingredients that are processed in a safe, reliable, and financially sustainable methods. Some of the literature available on health foods for various diseases is summarized below. However, since the burden of diabetes in India is staggering. In 2017, 72 million cases of people suffering from diabetes were reported and the figures are expected to reach 134 million by 2025, this chapter more emphasis is given on the safe, natural treatment/reduction of diabetes by herbal means.

Temperature regulates germination, plant growth, flowering, maturity and many insect and disease processes. Thermal indices integrate temperature over time to quantify biological development more effectively than simple temperature averages. This chapter introduces growing degree days, heat units, photothermal units, heliothermal units and related measures. It explains base, optimum and maximum temperatures and connects accumulated thermal time with crop phenology. These indices help predict development stages, adjust sowing dates, estimate harvest periods, schedule farm operations and assess varietal suitability. Thermal-index analysis is particularly valuable under climate variability because it enables researchers and farmers to anticipate shifts in crop development and improve climate-responsive agricultural management.

Thermal preservation is among the most established methods for improving the safety and storage life of food. It uses controlled heating to destroy spoilage organisms and pathogens and to inactivate undesirable enzymes. Processing intensity varies according to the target microorganisms, food composition, packaging and required shelf life. Pasteurisation reduces pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms without achieving complete sterility, while sterilisation destroys more heat-resistant organisms and spores to produce commercially stable foods. Ultra-high-temperature processing combines very high temperatures with extremely short treatment periods. This chapter also discusses retort processing, thermal-death kinetics and microbial-inactivation models used to design safe processes while minimising nutritional and sensory damage.

Q. 1 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm milk by
one degree celsius in comparison to water is
(A) 85 %     (B) 93 %
(C) 107 %    (D) 100 %

Abstract

Thermal properties of food are its ability to conduct, store and lose heat. These properties are inherent in food processing and preservation practices. Thermal properties are important for modelling processes, engineering design of processing equipment, sterilization and aseptic processing. Important thermal properties are thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity. These properties depend on chemical composition, water fraction and temperature.

Introduction

Thermal properties are involved in almost every food processing operation. It is essential to have knowledge of thermal properties of foods which is important in analysis and design of various food processes and food process equipment involved in heat transport. Thermal properties of food are greatly depending on composition, temperature and density of food. Thermal properties required for heat transfer calculation include specific heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Thermal properties of foods are related to heat transfer control in specified foods and can be classified as thermodynamic properties (enthalpy and entropy) and heat transport properties (thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity). Thermo physical properties not only include thermodynamic and heat transport properties, but also other physical properties involved in the transfer of heat, such as freeze and boiling point, mass, density, porosity, and viscosity. These properties play an important role in the design and prediction of heat transfer operations during the handling, processing, canning, storing, and distribution of foods.

Thermal stress arises whenever there is some increase or decrease in temperature of a body which causes either expansion or contraction in the dimension of body. If body is free to expand or contract, with the rise or fall of temperature, there exist no stress in the body. But if deformation of the body is partially or completely resisted then stresses are set up in the body which is known as Thermal Stress. However amount of stress induced in partially prevented deformation will be small than in case deformation is totally prevented.

2.1 Introduction

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. It may be defined as the science that deals with the relations among heat, work and properties of a system. Today, thermodynamics is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter. It is viewed as the science of energy, and thermal engineering is concerned with making the best use of available energy resources.

Thermodynamics basically entails four laws or axioms known as Zeroth, First, Second and Third law of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept of temperature.

The first law pertains to the conservation of energy and introduces the concept of internal energy.

The second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and introduces the concept of entropy.

The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.

The concept of energy was introduced by Newton in the field of mechanics during generalizing the hypothesis of kinetic and potential energies. Energy may be defined as the capacity to do work and it is a scalar quantity. It cannot be seen or observed. Its presence can, however, be felt by the properties of the system. There occurs a change in one or more properties of the system in case of energy transfer. The absolute value of energy of a system is difficult to measure, whereas the energy change is rather easy to calculate. Energy follows the conservation law, one of the most fundamental laws of nature, which simply states that during an interaction, energy can change its form from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant, that is, energy cannot be created or destroyed only form can be changed.

Direction of rotation can be reversed in
(A) 2- stroke engine           (B) 4- stroke engine
(C) Both (A) and (B)          (D) None of these

Thermodynamics is defined as the “branch of science which deals with the interaction between the heat and work”[1]. Thermodynamics is also sometimes stated as the science of energy. Thermodynamic deals with the principles of energy and energy conversion in engineering. It also considers the thermodynamic properties of substances. Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat into work and vice-versa.

Based on the nature and purpose of the content, there are numerous classes of scientific communications. Theses represent the class of research communications that are of great importance to the students. Thesis is part and parcel of the master’s and doctoral programme in almost every academic institution. In some institutions, even the bachelor students are expected to submit their brief report on project.

Introduction

India’s textile sector is one of the oldest industries in the Indian economy, dating back several centuries. The industry is highly varied, with hand-spun and hand woven textiles sectors at one end of the spectrum and the capital-intensive sophisticated mill sector at the other. The fundamental strength of the textile industry in India is its strong production base of a wide range of fiber/yarns, from natural fibers like cotton, jute, silk, and wool, to synthetic/man-made fibers like polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.