eChapters

Rerd. L.L.Langstroth (Father of modern bee keeping) discovered movable frame hive in 1851.

In 1882, beekeeping was introduced in India.

In 1911, Rerd. Newton introduced beekeeping to South India.

Revolutionizing skin cancer detection
The diagnostic process for skin cancer is evolving. Physicians have in the past relied upon physical exams to be followed by scanning and biopsies taking anywhere between 15 days to return results. Although most abnormalities turn out to be non-cancerous, this is distressing to patients and contributes to healthcare costs. Additionally, certain growths that turn out to be cancerous remain undiagnosed since they have not been visible.
Breakthrough startup Damae Medical is set to reverse this process. The startup has developed an advanced probe that is able to take 3D images of the skin to unveil the full extent of abnormalities in real time. This enables doctors to diagnose in an instant, enabling improved personalized treatment. When an operation is required only diseased tissue is removed to prevent unnecessary treatments and improved outcomes in patients.
The Origins in the Institut d’Optique
The beginnings of Damae Medical can be traced to Palaiseau-based Institut d’Optique where in 2013 two photonics students envisaged potential in an emerging imaging tech. Together with the inventor himself in 2014, they cofounded Damae Medical by taking an exclusive license to the core family of patents held by three partner institutions. While this contract was beneficial in launching the company to an early growth spurt, in the long run created difficulty in exercising control. This was resolved by taking an equity-forcontrol purchase in 2019 by Damae to acquire the foundational patent

The increasing deployment of Large Language Models across education, healthcare, finance, employment and public services has made fairness and ethical responsibility central concerns in AI development. LLMs learn from enormous datasets that may contain historical inequalities, stereotypes, cultural assumptions and other forms of social bias. This chapter examines the origins, manifestations and consequences of bias in LLMs and considers approaches for promoting fair and responsible deployment. It discusses data bias arising from the composition and curation of training datasets, algorithmic bias introduced through model architectures and learning processes, and bias associated with human-in-the-loop systems. Gender, racial and cultural biases are considered because they can influence generated outputs and potentially reinforce existing inequalities. The chapter also examines fairness evaluation, mitigation strategies, transparency, accountability and human oversight. Ethical concerns extend beyond bias to hallucination, misinformation, privacy and inappropriate automation. Effective governance requires continuous monitoring rather than one-time assessment because model behaviour may change across applications and populations. The chapter therefore emphasizes responsible AI principles that place fairness, transparency, accountability, safety and human interests at the centre of LLM development and deployment.

The increasing use of genomics, phenotyping, remote sensing, sensors and digital agricultural technologies has generated large and complex datasets in plant science. This chapter examines the role of big data analytics in managing and interpreting these datasets for agricultural research and decision-making. It discusses applications of big data in plant science and the technological infrastructure required for data storage, processing and analysis. Cloud computing, next-generation sequencing and high-performance computing are highlighted as important technologies supporting large-scale biological and agricultural data analysis. The chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of big data, including computational requirements, data management, integration and interpretation, before outlining future opportunities for data-driven plant science.

Electronic health records contain extensive clinical, demographic, diagnostic and treatment information that can support medical research and decision-making. This chapter examines the characteristics of healthcare big data and the challenges associated with EHR storage, integration, quality and analysis. It presents an analytics pipeline covering data ingestion, secure storage, preprocessing, integration, pattern discovery, visualization and clinical decision support. Machine learning and deep learning methods are discussed in relation to clinical phenotyping, risk stratification, predictive epidemiology and adverse-outcome prediction. The chapter also addresses data privacy, governance, regulatory compliance, explainability, scalability and bias, highlighting the need for secure and interoperable EHR-mining systems that generate clinically useful knowledge.

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment.

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich (in proper C:N ratio) materials.

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients.

Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:

Reducing the input costs in farming, especially agrochemicals and improving the yields of farm products in environmentally sustainable way, is one of the most important challenges. World over, the understanding of alternative eco-friendly inputs and intelligent integration of such products with the farming practices are the areas which need to be emphasized, understood and demonstrated. Our experience of working with farmers in different regions has convinced us that they all are looking for alternative, eco-friendly and cost effective inputs and the only way to convince them is practical demonstrations. 
Eco safe farming is a global challenge and needs combined efforts of NGO_s and farmers bodies, private and public sector industries and scientists in the institutions and universities. There are many challenges and many success stories and some typical once are listed here.

At an Agri Summit, I had a very difficult task to chair a session on “Sustainable Future”, with two well-known but extremely opposite personalities. On my left was a globally well-known environment activist talking about all the evils of chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. On my right was the President of Pesticide Association with equally strong views about how the chemical pesticides have greatly helped in feeding the hungry world. My task was further made difficult by a large lobby of green activists in the audience and also a number of seasoned industrialists with opposite views. Such a scenario is becoming increasingly common.

Introduction 
Carbon rich solid residue named as biochar produced by heating biomass in a procedure recognized as pyrolysis. During pyrolysis, biomass, including crop and forestry residues, manure, municipal and industrial wastes, is broken down at temperatures exceeding 400°C, with minute to no oxygen present. This procedure results in the making of syngas, bio oil, and biochar. Given its high carbon content, approximately 60% to 90%, biochar addition in soil has been recommended as an effective, long-term method for capturing atmospheric CO2 within terrestrial ecosystems. In addition to its role in reducing greenhouse gas productions and carbon sequestration, biochar offers various advantages for soil quality enhancement. Incorporating biochar into soils can boost crop yields by improvising the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, such as increasing water retention, adjusting soil pH, and enhancing microbial activity (Zoghlami and Paës, 2019). The production of biochar offer several benefits such as carbon sequestration in which produced biochar captures carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere (Rahimi, Anand and Gautam, 2022). This helps mitigate climate change by locking carbon in a steady form for a lengthy period, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. When added to soil, biochar can enhance its physical, chemical, and biological properties. It improves water preservation, nutrient accessibility, and microbial activity, leading to increased soil fertility and crop yields (Saikia et al., 2015)perennial grass species Arundo donax L. was pyrolysed in a fixed-bed reactor and characterization was performed for the liquid and the solid products. The effect of process parameters such as temperature (350-650°C. Biochar production can utilize various types of organic waste materials, including agricultural residues, forestry waste, and certain municipal and industrial wastes. This reduces the burden on landfills and promotes waste recycling. The pyrolysis process used to create biochar can be designed to minimize emissions of harmful gases and particulates, thus contributing to air quality improvement. These byproducts can be used as sources of renewable energy, further reducing the carbon footprint. Biochar can improve soil aeration, reduce soil erosion, and help prevent nutrient leaching, which contributes to overall soil health and ecosystem stability as described in figure 9.1. It can remain in the soil for thousands of years, providing long-term carbon storage benefits. Biochar

Introduction 
The fast-changing world has put a vast amount of pressure on the energy system [1]. That has resulted in a sudden increase in global energy consumption. For several centuries fossil fuels have been the bedrock of energy generation, powering industries, households, and transportation. Apart from this mounting evidence of climate change has been characterized by rising global temperatures, extreme weather conditions and rise in the sea level are been directly linked to the emissions generated by the combustion of these fossil fuels. The harmful effect of the greenhouse gases on the environment has impacted globally. We strongly need much safer and more sustainable energy sources. In addition, the main reason behind international relations instability is often linked with the fossil fuel-dependent economies, coupled with the finite nature of such resources, which has underscored the requirement of diversifying the energy mix. Biochar an alternatives to fossil fuels emerging as carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in anaerobic conditions this product is known as pyrolysis [2]. This substance has the potential that be derived from a variety of biomass waste streams, including animal excreta, food scraps, forestry residues municipal solid waste, and agriculture by-products. Transforming organic waste into stable, carbon-rich products, biochar offers a dual benefit that addresses waste management challenges while contributing to carbon storage. Biochar is a versatile material that has exceptional properties that make it a promising alternative for addressing various environmental and energy challenges [3]. It has unique characteristics that include high porosity, creating a network of interconnected pores that enhance its surface area and reactivity, functional groups that enables biochar to react with a wide variety of substances. The substantial surface area provides ample sites for adsorption a process where pollutants bind to the biochar surface. The material high cation exchange capacity allows it to retain essential nutrients by preventing their leaching and helping in enhancing soil fertility [4]. However, biochar has remarkable stability providing resistant degradation and persisting in the environment for extended periods, making it an effective carbon sequestration tool. The economic benefits of biochar are equally persuasive, as it can be produced from low cost readily available biomass waste thereby reducing waste disposal costs. Furthermore, the process of creating biochar is really simple and effective for the environment and contributes to the overall appeal. There are several studies have underscored biochar’s effectiveness in removing pollutants from water spills [5]. To produce biochar there are several thermochemical conversion techniques are been employed, including torrefaction, gasification, flash carbonization, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization. among this pyrolysis is the most prevalent method. This process involves biomass heating without oxygen that results in organic matter decomposition and the formation of biochar and bio-oil. Pyrolysis is done under a state of low oxygen, where the biomass is degraded the biomass type, residence time, and thermal efficiency at a given temperature, heating, and feedstock type impact the item formed in due process. The fundamental characteristics and structure of biochar also depend upon the kind of reactor used in the carbonization process [6] organic material synthesized through pyrolysis of different biomass (plant or animal waste. Currently available technologies for characterizing biochar include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman spectroscopy, Braeuer Emmett Teller (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermos Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [7,8]. Due to its numerous benefits and used in a variety of, environmental problems like cutting greenhouse gas emissions

Transforming organic materials, such as agricultural residues, food waste, or biomass, into valuable bio-based products is crucial for waste management. This process, called biochemical conversion, employs various enzymatic, microbial, or chemical reactions to break down complex organic compounds into simpler molecules like sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. These intermediates can then be further processed into biofuels, pharmaceuticals, and other bio-derived materials, making this process promising for sustainable energy and resource management. Biochemical conversion typically includes pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification. It offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based production methods, reducing environmental impacts and dependence on non-renewable resources.

Bioclimatology examines relationships between climate and living organisms, including crops, livestock and humans. It draws on biology, ecology, meteorology, architecture and physiology to explain how temperature, humidity, radiation and wind influence development, comfort, health and productivity. This chapter introduces bioclimatic indices such as the Temperature-Humidity Index, Humidex, wind chill and thermal-comfort measures. Agricultural applications include crop and livestock suitability, heat-stress assessment, housing design, work planning and development of resilient farming systems. Understanding biological responses to climatic conditions supports appropriate management interventions and helps protect productivity and welfare. Bioclimatic analysis therefore connects atmospheric conditions with practical decisions involving plants, animals and people.

The growing concern over the environmental impact of traditional packaging has led to increased interest in biodegradable and edible packaging solutions. These innovative approaches offer sustainable alternatives to conventional materials like plastic, which can persist in the environment for hundreds of years. Biodegradable packaging decomposes naturally, reducing pollution and landfill waste, while edible packaging provides an additional layer of sustainability by allowing consumers to eat the packaging along with the food) These solutions not only address waste management issues but also respond to changing consumer preferences for environmentally friendly products. This chapter explores the importance of sustainable packaging, the different types of biodegradable and edible materials available, and the challenges and future potential of these eco-friendly options.

8.1 Introduction

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from exhaust emissions and global warming have generated an intense international interest in developing alternative non-petroleum fuels for engines. The use of vegetable oil in internal combustion engines is not a recent innovation. Rudolf Diesel (18581913), creator of the diesel cycle engines, used peanut vegetable oil to demonstrate its invention in Paris in 1900. In 1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils as engine fuel may seem negligible today. Nevertheless, such oils may become, in the passing years, as important as oil and coal tar presently.” Nowadays, it is known that oil is a finite resource and that its price tends to increase exponentially, as its reserves have being decreasing¹.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to accelerate the development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich in coal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4 % of the world’s reserve). India, like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percent of primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largely responsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercial energy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth².

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

Introduction 
In recent years, the global demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has intensified due to the continuous depletion of fossil fuel reserves, rising fuel prices, and environmental concerns. Bioethanol, a renewable fuel derived from the fermentation of plant biomass, is considered a promising alternative to petroleum-based fuels. Among various feedstocks, tuber crops such as cassava, sweet potato, and potato have gained significant attention due to their high starch content and relatively low competition with food supply in certain regions. Bioethanol production is broadly categorized into four generations based on the type of feedstock and technology involved: First-Generation Bioethanol is derived from food crops such as maize, sugarcane, and tuber crops. Despite its wide application, it has been criticized for contributing to rising food prices (Khairati, 2024). Second-Generation Bioethanol is produced from non-food lignocellulosic biomass like agricultural residues, which reduces the food vs. fuel conflict (Sharma et al., 2020). Third- Generation Bioethanol is derived from algal biomass, offering higher yields and lower competition with land use (Brennan & Owende, 2010). Fourth-Generation Bioethanol combines biomass conversion with carbon capture and storage technologies, providing the highest environmental benefits (Yoon et al., 2012). Further the trend in world ethanol production during the year 20020–2025 is given in Figure 1. Tuber crops such as cassava, sweet potato, and potato are promising feedstocks due to their high starch content and lower food competition in certain regions. Recent studies highlight the efficiency of bioethanol production from these crops: Cassava is considered the most efficient tuber crop for bioethanol production due to its high starch yield and low production cost (Jagatee et al., 2015). Sweet Potato studies report ethanol yields of up to 138.6 g/kg under optimized fermentation conditions using co-fermentation techniques (Dash et al., 2017). Industrial potato waste has been successfully utilized for bioethanol production, with pilotscale experiments yielding up to 68.68% ethanol concentration (Sehsah et al., 2015). Bioethanol production from tuber crops presents several environmental and economic benefits. Life Cycle Assessment studies indicate that bioethanol reduces GHG emissions compared to gasoline, particularly in second-generation production systems (Farahani & Asoodar, 2017). Utilizing agricultural waste

9.1 Introduction

The rapid growth of industrialization and population significantly affect on the demand of ethanol as an alternate fuel. Generally, conventional crops like sugarcane and corn become unable to meet the demand of bioethanol, due to their primary role in food and feed. Therefore, lignocellulosic biomass from agriculture waste is attractive precursor for bioethanol production. Biomass is renewable organic material, abundant and cost effective. Ethanol production from agriculture waste has been projected an economically attractive option for industrial sector. However, sugar and starch derived ethanol have a more theoretical yield as compared to lignocelluloses, theses sources are insufficient for bioethanol production. The major agricultural wastes including rice straw, corn straw, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse etc. can subsequently used for ethanol production. Rice straw has a highest worldwide potential for bioethanol production (205 giga liter) followed by wheat straw (104 giga liter), corn straw (58.6 giga liter), and finally for sugarcane bagasse (51.3 giga liter)¹.

A bio fuels is environmentally friendly options for power generation. Most of the fossil fuels are biological in nature. These are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give up the same amount when burnt. The bio fuels are therefore considered to be “CO₂ neutral”, not adding to the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. The type of bio fuel used will depend on a number of factor, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally.

India import 70% of the oil it uses, and the country has been hard by the increasing price of oil, uncertainty and environmental hazards that are concerned with the consumption of fossil fuels. In this context, bio fuels constitute a suitable alternative source of energy for India. There are two examples of bio fuels are Ethanol and Bio diesel (Renewable Diesel)

Ethanol can be made from biomass material containing sugar, starches, or cellulose (starch and cellulose are complex from of sugar)

Preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants to uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil.

Accelerates microbial processes in the soil.