eChapters

6.0 General

No lessons can be drawn without the experiences of the past. In fact, much of engineering, rather all sciences have developed in bits and pieces from the experiences of the past. The engineers by and large have never become wiser in one day. They have become wiser slowly and slowly with their own experiences and from the experiences of past engineering works. Wisdom lies to gain wisdom from experiences/draw lessons from the marvellous engineering works constructed so far. It helps us in a direction for further development of technological skills.

Here an effort is made to draw lessons from experiences of the canals constructed in the past.

 There are several aspects of such experiences. A few important aspects of studies are:

 (i) Internal hydraulic sections of the canal with respect to discharge, topography, stability of side slopes, type of lining, operation and maintenance problems and their solutions etc.

 (ii) Design of canals banks (embankment) with respect to discharge, depth of flow, depth of cutting /filling, below/above natural ground level, type of soil, topography, operation and maintenance, drainage of banks etc.

 (iii) Canals aesthetics and arboriculture

 (iv) Other utility/service of canal such as multi-objectives of hydropower, irrigation, drinking/industrial water supply, social needs of recreation, forests etc.

A. Rectangular Canals

5.1 Design of Best Rectangular Canals

After the Mehboob and Trapezoidal canals, next best section is rectangle. This section is also generally adopted for small discharges say upto 10 cumecs (350 cusecs). This section ranks at No. 4. Yet, this is the only section most commonly adopted for flumes of discharges upto140 cumecs (5000 cusecs). Typical example is Orsang acqueduct, 1 km. long for 1140 cumecs (40000 cusecs) in ractangular sections on Narmada Canal Project, Gujrat, India, built in the years from 1990 – 2000. Such sections are common in power house canals due to limitation of space and very sharp curves. It is free from the effect of change of side slopes as in the trapezoidal canals (see para 3.3) Still some small side slope (batter) is adopted in thick masonry / concrete lining. It adds to structural stability with economy in thickness of wall and as well as hydraulic efficiency. It may still be called as rectangular section.

Details of its hydraulic efficiency in comparison to semi circle, Mehboob and trapeziodal sections are discussed in chapter 1, para 1.8

A canal of more than 80 cumecs (3000 cusecs) approximetly may be called as a high capacity canal.

It has already been pointed out in chapter 1, that for the best section of any shape, R is always equal to d/2 only, and such depth is the most optimum depth. But such channels are not always practical or most economical due to many other practical reasons, (see para 4.1 and 6.3) and many times shallower depth then this depth is adopted. Typical examples are lining of existing earthen channels, given in para 6.3.

All the best sections have fixed ratio of dimensions very near to the semi circle. For large discharges, radius of semi circle increases that, means depth of canal as well as velocity increases. But higher velocity is not permissible with every type of lining (see table 2.1 and para 2.3). Similarly depth also has limitation of construction, maintenance, stability of slopes, etc. see example–4.2.

Because of limiting velocities and depth, deeper canal section are not practically feasible/possible. Therefore for large discharges, say more than 100 cumecs, Mehboob or best trapizodal sections are just not possible/practical, and recourse has to be taken to trapezoidal section with increased bed width then depth. This section is hydraulically inefficient or uneconomical. Larger the B/D ratio, larger is the inefficiency and section is more costly. (For Mehboob Section, B:D ratio is zero and for best trapizodal section it is much less than 1, see para 3.1, table 3.1 para 3.5 and table 3.4).

A canal of approximate discharge of less than 80 cumecs (3000 cusecs) discharge may be called a medium or low capacity canal).

3.1 Mehboob Section

A Mehboob Section is only a modification of best trapezoidal section by making its complete bottom circular as shown in figure 3.1. Also see figure 1.6 and para 1.7. That is why these canals are also known as canals of zero bed width, or trapezoidal canals with curved bottom, or cup shaped canals.

But these cannot be called as triangular canals with curves, as often spoken. In fact it is a truncated triangle circumscribing the semi circle. Trapezium is also a truncated triangle circum scribing a circle.

More accurately it can be said as a combination of semi circular and best trapezoidal section so as to take full advantage of their hydraulic efficiency and practicability.

This is such a beautiful section that the designer can never commit a mistake, even if he wants to commit a mistake. The dimensions are so geometrically fixed that no one can play with any dimension.

The value of this section was realised for the first time by Er S I Mehboob (1943) in his Punjab Irrigation Branch Paper No.260" Lining of Canals". There after this canal section became well known as Mehboob Section after his name. He also stated that the most economical section i.e. the maximum area for the minimum perimeter is when the centre of the arc is at the full supply line of the section. This is also evident in figure 1.6. This is also the condition for all best hydraulic sections. This section is also useful to a higher silt carrying capacity than a wide shallow one..

Theoritical aspects of design has been discussed in chapter 1. Discharging capacity of canal is

 computed by Manning Equation (1)and continuity Equation (2) (Para 1.4).

 In the Manning's equation  V  =   R2/3  S1/2 / N (Eq. 1, Para 1.4);  N and R play most important role.

 The effect of  R has been discussed in para 1.4.1, Chapter 1. In this chapter the complexities of Manning's n (or N, also known as Manning's rougosity coefficient

 or simply rougosity coefficient) and some practical aspects of composite sections and velocity in best

 Mehboob, trapezoidal or rectangular sectioned channels are discussed.

2.0 Manning's Rugosity Coefficient (n)

Value of N depends upon a number of factors such as , surface roughness, vegetation, obstructions, type of lining, age of lining, erosion and damages in lining, curves, discharging capacity , perimeters, depth of flow, velocity etc. These are discussed below and commonly adopted values of n are given in tables 2.1 to 2.3.

1.0 General

 The design of canal involves following three major aspects:

 A Irrigation and drainage canal network planning.

 B Determination of discharge / capacities of  canals and drainages.

 C Determination of shape and size i.e. geometrical dimensions of the proposed canal section, generally

 known as design of canal section. More appropriately it can be called as design of internal section

 of canal. It can be further divided in three following parts viz.

 i. Design of unlined canals:

 ii. Design of lined canals: or a canal may be partly lined and partly unlined.

 iii. Choice between the unlined and lined canals. This aspect should be distinguished from the selection of type of lining. However, the scope of choice of lining may include both the aspects.

 The design of canal section remains incomplete without the design of its embankments, either in lined or unlined canal, so the next aspect is

 iv. Design of canal embankments. Still to complete the design of a canal one more aspect is required i.e.

 v. Canal aesthetics and canal arboriculture.

10.1. Introduction

Irrigation facilities are created by the Government at huge cost for supplying water to the farmers for raising crops to increase agricultural production. The major and medium irrigation projects are planned, constructed, managed, operated and maintained by the Irrigation Departments, wherein certain procedures and rules are evolved and followed to the delivery schedule of canals, frequency of supply and distribution of water to the farmers, and closing of canals. The creation of such facilities resulted in ushering the green revolution in the sixties and seventies in the production of food grains and also employment generation in the country, thereby improving the socio-economic condition of Indian farmers. However, optimized management of irrigation water is the key to the sustainable development of agriculture and livestock. Since management of water for irrigation is highly location-specific, depending upon agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, type of irrigation project and land use pattern, it differs from project to project and region to region in the country.

9.1. Introduction

Human dependence on natural processes for the goods and services provided by nature, especially food, fuel and fibre, has been a known fact. In recent times, the value of less tangible services, such as climate control, water f iltration, and soil fertility, as well as recreational and cultural services has been emphasized also. Ecosystem services underpin human existence, health, and prosperity. It has been beneficial to humans through the transformations of resources (or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation, and the atmosphere) into a flow of essential goods and services like clean air, water, and food (Costanza et al., 1997). Ecosystem services are those functions of ecosystems- including agroecosystems that are useful to humans or supportive of human well-being (Kremen, 2005). Services provided by ecosystems receive little notice for their support to human civilization often leading to poor management of the ecosystems. Land use systems influence ecosystem functions, which determine the supply of ecosystem services. Land and water resources are under considerable pressure from the expansion of cultivated and residential lands. Diverse land use in agrarian landscapes not only fosters biodiversity, but also provides potential ecosystem services such as air cleaning by vegetation, natural water filtration by plant roots, natural pest suppression, soil conservation, nutrient retention, and crop pollination by insects, etc. Lowland floodplains or waterlogged land areas are generally more conscious of the benefits provided by ecosystem services. It is important to create awareness among the people on provisioning services provided by ecosystems, such as crops, biofuel, fresh water, natural medicine, wildlife, and several cultural services. Managing ecosystem services, which link human well-being to conservation outcomes, is essential for achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (Zhang, 2017).

8.1. Biofloc aquaculture

Among the innovations in the field of aquaculture, biofloc technology (BFT) has attracted great attention due to its ability to foster the goals of sustainable aquaculture (Khanjani et al., 2022a). If implemented correctly, BFT capitalizes on the existing organisms in water to significantly reduce water use and environmental impact and increase biosafety at farms (Avnimelech, 2012).

7.1. Introduction

The integrated farming system (IFS) is becoming increasingly important for effective farm resource management in order to increase farm productivity, reduce environmental degradation, improve the quality of life for resource-poor farmers, and ensure sustainability. Integration happens when one production sub-system's outputs (typically by-products) are used as inputs in another within the farm unit (Radhammani et al., 2003; Lightfoot and Minnick, 1991). IFS are a mixed farming system made up of at least two distinct but logically linked components of crop and animal enterprises. The integrated farming system is effective in reducing risk, increasing productivity and revenues, and improving the use of organic waste and agricultural leftovers.

5.1. Introduction

Rice-fallows are a rainfed rice mono-crop production system, where only a single crop (rice) is grown and these lands remain without any crop for the rest of the period of the year (fallow). An estimate shows that rice-fallow areas extended over 22.3 M ha in South Asia, maximum in India ( 88.3%) followed by Bangladesh (8.7%), Nepal (1.4%), Sri Lanka (1.1%), Pakistan (0.5%), and Bhutan (0.02%) (Gumma et al., 2016). The eastern part of India accounts for ~ 84% (9.7 million ha) of the country’s total rice-fallow area (i.e. 11.7 million ha) (Ali et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2017), despite high rainfall during rainy / monsoon season. The reasons are that after the rainy season, irrigation facilities are lacking, very fast depletion of the soil residual moisture due to temperature rise, the poor economic condition of the farmers, and a lack of awareness or knowledge of available technologies. Additionally, delayed harvesting of long-duration rice (150-160 days) results in late sowing of winter crops, which, in turn, exacerbates the temperature and moisture stresses in winter crops (Kumar et al., 2018a; 2018b). Overall, the challenges of growing another crop in rice-fallow areas are the lack of irrigation facilities including declining groundwater levels, the dominance of the long-duration rice varieties cultivation, higher evaporative loss of the residual soil moisture, degradation of soil quality, and poor financial conditions of the farming community with diminishing profit. Recently, climate change with erratic rainfall and delayed monsoon arrival added more challenges for these areas in several places. Deficit soil moisture imposes stress on the crops and negatively affects the winter crops productivity in the rice-fallow system, and several times it results in complete crop failure (Singh et al., 2012; Ghosh et al., 2016).

4.1. Introduction

Globally, rice is cultivated on about 165 million ha of land, which provides around 787 million tons of paddy annually (FAO, 2023). In Asia, 708 million tons of paddy is produced from nearly 143 million rice-cultivated areas. Rice crop is grown in a wide range of climates, varied soil types, and hydrological situations. Rice is the lone cereal crop that grows well in floods.

The rice habitat can be divided into four groups based on the hydrology of the rice field: irrigated lowland rice (79~80 million ha), rainfed lowland rice (54~55 million ha), upland rice (14~15 million ha), and flood-prone rice (11~12 million ha) (Table 4.1) (Bouman et al., 2006).

3.1. Introduction

Rice is grown in varying geographical locations and climatic situations. Most of the rice area lies between the equator and 400 N latitude and between 700 and 1400 E longitude. It grows well from tropical to sub-tropical warm and temperate climatic regions up to 400 S and 500 N of the equator. However, the highest yields are obtained in the region between 300 and 450 N of the equator. The average yield generally increases as the countries are situated further away from the equator (Chatterjee and Maiti, 1985). In India, rice grows in regions from 80 N to 350 N latitudes under widely varying conditions of the land, rainfall, altitude and climatic conditions. It is grown at the sea level in river deltas as in parts of Kerala, as deepwater in states of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar; at high altitudes of 914 to 1524 m or even more as in Kashmir, and in the slopes of the Himalayas. A temperature range of 200 C to 37.70 C is required throughout the life period of rice crop.

2.1. Introduction

Water plays a pivotal role in this earth system. The withdrawal of water for irrigation is about 70% of the global freshwater. Water use efficiency is less than 50% in many countries. It has been forecasted by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2015) that global water requirements will be increased by 50% by the year 2050 to meet the demands of agricultural water use. This is so because food demand will be higher for the growing human population. We have entered into an earth system where everything living has evolved and developed (Cosgrove and Loucks, 2015). There has been a new geological scenario, some say Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002; Williams et al., 2011). Consequently, freshwater will increasingly be a scarce and the costliest resource in the future, which needs to be managed properly.

1.1. Introduction: India’s present population, growth rate & projections

India is the second-most populous country in the world after China with its population of about 1.38 billion in the year 2020. The Population Division under the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, of the United Nations, has projected the country’s population to be growing to about 1.50 billion by the year 2030, and 1.64 billion by 2050, of course with its decreasing annual growth rate from 1.04 to 0.25% or so during the period of next thirty years (Fig. 1.1; UNDESA, 2019). The projection says the Indian population will exceed China by the year 2030 even with its decreasing rate i.e. India will be the most populous country by then. As agriculture and allied sectors are the backbone of this country and the largest livelihood source, it support this growing human and livestock population with diversified natural resources and varied agro-climatic conditions. However, the sustainability of agricultural production should be maintained in the face of perturbation and stress on the agro-ecosystem especially the degraded natural resource base and changing climate.

6.1. Introduction

The growing human population presents a number of issues, including food scarcity, malnutrition, inadequate natural resources (land and water) for agricultural production, and environmental deterioration (MacDonald, 2010). Today, viable intensification of agri-production systems can fulfill rising food, nutrition and environmental demands (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Production of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a vital element of food security, which feeds nearly half of the world's population, occupies 143 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and uses up to 90% of all irrigation water in Asia (Liu et al., 2018). For instance, it has been determined that systems for producing rice are one of the main industries that wastes water resources and greatly increases greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to manage the rice production system more effectively. In paddy rice systems, co cultivating aquatic animals (fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, and ducks) and rice has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of environmental pollution/ contamination linked with rice production while simultaneously optimizing the use of land and water resources to provide humans with both grains and meat (Hu et al., 2016; Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Co-culture systems have drawn more interest recently due to their potential to reduce the stresses associated with environmental and food insecurity.

Greenhouses have become an essential part of modern agriculture as they offer controlled environments for plant growth, research, and horticultural practices. This chapter discusses the various applications of greenhouses, which include extending growing seasons, improving crop yields, supporting botanical research, and producing ornamental plants. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of repair and maintenance in greenhouse operations. Understanding the repair and maintenance protocols is crucial to ensure the sustained functionality of heating systems, water management, and structural components.

12.1 Introduction

It is important to note that growing crops in a greenhouse requires a significant f inancial and administrative commitment. In order to ensure profitability, firms need to consider both cash flow and profitability. An enterprise budget can help address profitability potential by itemizing costs incurred across a typical production cycle. On the other hand, a cash flow budget is used to analyze the cash inflows and outflows of the enterprise over a fixed period of time.

11.1 Introduction

Horticultural crops are grown by farmers with the aim of generating profit. For a business to prosper, it is crucial that its products are delivered to customers who are satisfied with their quality and value, and who will continue to purchase them. Therefore, growers must continually meet consumers’ demand for fresh greenhouse-grown items by utilizing all available technology and expertise in producing, harvesting, packaging, storing, transporting, and marketing their goods. The needs of the consumer should drive production.

In the world of greenhouse cultivation, achieving optimal plant growth, maintaining robust health, and effectively managing pests is crucial for successful crop production. It requires a comprehensive approach to balance various factors, including chemical growth regulation, disease control, and pest management. Greenhouse technology plays a vital role in providing a controlled environment to fine-tune these variables. As we dive into the details of this delicate balance, it becomes clear how important it is to combine science and technology to find innovative solutions to ensure thriving crops while minimizing environmental impact.

9.1 Introduction

The world is facing various challenges, including climate change, population growth, and decreasing fertile land. It is necessary for the agricultural sector to shift towards sustainability and innovation. To revolutionize traditional farming practices, alternative cropping systems and advanced technologies like plant tissue culture in greenhouses are being explored. The goal is to optimize resource utilization, enhance crop resilience, and reduce the environmental impact. By adopting cutting-edge technologies, such as plant tissue culture, crops can be propagated and cultivated within controlled environments like greenhouses, ensuring global food security and meeting the growing population’s demands.

8.1 Introduction

The management of greenhouse environments has become crucial in modern agriculture due to increasing concerns about climate change and the urgent need for sustainable farming practices. Greenhouses, also known as “controlled environment agriculture” facilities, have revolutionized the way we grow food by extending the growing season and allowing us to cultivate a wide range of plants in various climates. They achieve this by precisely regulating environmental elements such as temperature, humidity, light, and carbon dioxide concentration, which are all crucial for optimizing plant growth and yield.

7.1 Introduction

The practice of greenhouse management has become a crucial method for extending growing seasons, improving crop quality, and maximizing yield potential in modern agriculture. Shedding and ventilation are critical elements that determine the effectiveness of greenhouse operations. They are pivotal in creating a delicate ecology where plants can find shelter in a controlled environment that protects them from the elements while enabling exact changes to temperature, humidity, and light.

6.1 Introduction

Greenhouses play an essential role in modern agriculture and horticulture by providing a regulated environment for plant development. To ensure optimal growing conditions and maximum yields, it’s crucial to maintain the temperature inside these structures effectively. This leads us to the fascinating subject of “Heating and Cooling of Greenhouses,” where we investigate the delicate balance between temperature, humidity, and ventilation to promote plant health and production. With greenhouses, growing seasons can be extended, a broader range of crops can be grown, and even plants that would not do well in the local environment can thrive.

Solar heat plays a pivotal role in the functioning of greenhouses, serving as a primary energy source that influences the internal climate crucial for plant growth. The absorption of solar radiation by the greenhouse covering material initiates a complex process of heat transfer, involving conduction, convection, and radiation. This solar energy, once absorbed, contributes to elevating the temperature within the greenhouse, creating a favorable environment for plants. A fundamental understanding of solar heat dynamics is essential for optimizing greenhouse design and operational efficiency.

4.1 Introduction

Experts predict that the global population will exceed 9.6 billion by 2050. This, coupled with the rise of urbanization, the scarcity of arable land, and the destructive effects of climate change, poses significant challenges for agriculture and food production worldwide. To combat these challenges, new horticultural research techniques must be implemented to enhance productivity and efficiency, improve nutrition, and ensure food security, especially during times of crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic. Greenhouse technology has made remarkable strides in recent years, allowing for the manipulation of internal growth elements like temperature, light intensity, and CO2 concentration to create optimal growing conditions

3.1 Introduction

Greenhouses are buildings with a controlled environment that facilitate plant culture and development. They offer protection from adverse external weather conditions, high temperatures, strong winds, and pests, while providing an ideal environment for plant growth. The construction of a greenhouse involves the use of various materials to ensure its structural stability, longevity, light transmission, and insulation. The different components of the greenhouse, such as the frame, flooring, and covering, are constructed using different materials such as wood, aluminum, steel, concrete, soil, gravel, and more.

2.1 Introduction

Greenhouses are used mainly for cultivating vegetables and fruits during the off-season to provide favorable growing conditions. Proper management of the greenhouse structure is necessary to create these off-seasonal favorable conditions for plants. Factors like site selection, location, atmospheric conditions, cropping pattern, and structure of the greenhouse are considered during the development of a greenhouse. The National Committee on the use of Plastics in Agriculture (NCPA-1982) suggests conducting site-specific greenhouse technology trials before implementation across the nation.

1.1 Introduction

The greenhouse industry is rapidly growing, particularly in mild climates, and is crucial for providing access to fresh and clean food. Greenhouses provide an optimal climate for crops to grow and protect them from outside pests. Furthermore, greenhouse production has the potential to reduce water waste and implement integrated protection and production (IPP). It is essential to consider the environmental impact of protected cultivation, and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a valuable tool for evaluating these impacts.

Introduction

A geographical information system (GIS) is a kind of database that has software tools for handling, analyzing, and presenting spatial data and descriptions of phenomena that have a location component. This system can also involve human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, a body of knowledge about relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations in a wider sense. GIS technology is a key part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House describes as “the policies, technologies, standards, human resources, and related activities that are necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”

Introduction

We use our five senses to perceive the world around us. Some senses, like touch and taste, need contact with the objects. But we get most of our information about the environment through sight and hearing, which do not need close contact with the external objects. In scientific terms, we are doing remote- sensing all the time. Remote- sensing is the process of recording/observing/ perceiving (sensing) objects or events from a distance. Remote- sensing is a way of monitoring and detecting the features, usually physical, of a specific area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation (usually from satellite or aircraft).

Introduction

Crop models can be broadly classified into two categories: dynamic or process-based crop simulation models (CSMs), and reduced form statistical models. Since simulation models are based on various plant-related processes, they develop or alter in tandem with plant growth (Chetty 2009); as a result, they are inherently nonlinear (Olmstead 2009). To run, calibrate, and validate, they require a significant amount of date input. However, statistical models are helpful in situations where there is a lack of data because they describe the relationships between a subset of variables while keeping the others constant. (Chetty 2009).

Introduction

Nanopesticides are pesticides that use nanomaterials or nanotechnology to improve their effectiveness and safety in agriculture. Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension between 1 and 200 nm. Nanomaterials have different properties than their bulk counterparts, such as higher surface area, reactivity, and mobility. Nanopesticides can be formulated in various ways, such as nanosized active ingredients, molecular active ingredient nanocarrier complexes, or active ingredients encapsulated or coated by nanomaterials (Deka et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022).

Introduction

Nanofertilizers are products of nanotechnology that are created or modified from conventional fertilizers, bulk fertilizer materials, or plant extracts. They use different methods such as chemical, physical, mechanical, or biological processes to produce nanosized particles that can enhance soil fertility, crop productivity, and quality (KhetiGaadi 2022). Nanofertilizers have a size range of 0.1–100 nm, which is similar to the size of plant cell wall (20 nm), making them easier to be absorbed by plants (Tiwari 2022).

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a scientific and technological field that manipulates matter at the nanoscale to create, design, characterize, and use structures, systems, and devices with novel properties (Sattler 2016). Nanoparticles are one of the most important products of nanotechnology, as they exhibit different features from their bulk counterparts due to their size and shape (Sabir et al., 2014). Nanoparticles have applications in various disciplines, such as materials science, medicine, agriculture, physics, and chemistry.

Introduction

Precision farming, also known as precision agriculture, prescription farming, and site-specific farming, is grounded on the principle of managing fields based on their heterogeneity (Nowak 2021). In the past, crop management decisions were made for the entire field, treating it as a homogenous unit, despite significant variations in soil characteristics, weed infestations, and plant growth within a field (Nowak 2021). Precision agriculture integrates modern technology with past experience to manage farming on a grid-by-grid basis (Nowak 2021).

Introduction

In order to cater to the nutritional needs of a rapidly growing population, it is imperative to increase food grain production on the same land while maintaining the soil’s productive capacity. This necessitates comprehensive research to establish a scientific foundation for enhancing and sustaining food production and soil productivity with minimal environmental impact (Rathore et al., 2010). Balanced nutrition extends beyond the application of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium in specific quantities through fertilizers. It entails ensuring that the soil contains the right proportions of available nutrients to meet the crop’s requirements for optimal yield (Rathore et al., 2010).

Introduction

To address the escalating food demands of the global population, a transformation in the agricultural sector is imperative (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). The current overdependence on finite resources is leading to their overexploitation, largely due to irresponsible usage (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). By adopting a site-specific approach, farmers can apply inputs only where they are necessary in the field (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). This method can enhance output, decrease labor costs, and mitigate the environmental damage caused by excessive input use (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019).

Introduction

Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is the dynamic, field-specific management of nutrients in a particular cropping season to optimize the supply and demand of nutrients according to their differences in cycling throughsoil–plantsystems(Sarkar etal.,2017).Thisnewmethodofnutrient recommendationsisprimarilybasedontheinitialnutrientstatus(INS)from thesoil andthecrop’sneedfornutrients toachieve thedesiredyield.

Introduction

Agriculture is a vital sector in the world economy, as it helps to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development, especially in developing countries. However, agriculture also faces challenges such as increasing productivity and reducing environmental impacts. Therefore, new technologies and methods are needed to improve agricultural practices. One of these methods is precision agriculture (PA), which is based on the principle of sustainable agriculture and healthy food production. PA is a science that uses high technology sensors and analysis tools to improve crop yields and support management decisions. PA is a new concept that aims to increase production, reduce labor time, and optimize the management of fertilizers and irrigation processes.

Introduction

Crop discrimination is the process of using remote-sensing technologies to identify and characterize different types of crops based on their electromagnetic behavior at different wavelengths. Each crop has a unique spectral signature that reflects its response to the incident radiation. However, the spectral signature can also vary depending on the season, the angle of the sensor, crop’s features, illumination intensity, weather phenomenon, and topography among other external factors (Parida et al., 2023).

Introduction

A thematic layer is defined as a layer with a set of logical feature data placed under single theme such as soil type, pH level, salinity, and water table. The features in these layers determine real world objects and are created using geometries such as points, lines and polygons (Tickoo 2017). Thematic layering is the spatial representation of analyzed data of elements that belong to the same type. Thematic maps are used to create these layers, which show how one or more specific data themes vary across different geographic areas.

Introduction

Spectral signature: A spectral signature is the unique pattern of reflection and emission of a target at different wavelengths. This difference helps to classify remote sensing images based on the spectral signatures of different objects.

Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum: The EM spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation. Some examples are visible light from a lamp, radio waves from a radio station, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Spectral response patterns: A spectral response pattern is the amount of energy that an object reflects or emits at different wavelengths. It shows how the object interacts with the EM radiation.

Introduction

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system of satellites and ground stations that provide location and time information for any place on earth, regardless of the weather. GPS is a type of GNSS, which stands for global navigation satellite systems. GPS has many applications in precision farming, such as farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop guidance, variable- rate applications (VRAs) and yield mapping. GPS helps farmers work in low- visibility conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness. India has its own GPS system called IRNSS or NavIC, which uses about seven satellites. GPS is owned and operated by the U.S. government, specifically the U.S.

Types of Biomedical Waste

1. Infectious waste: waste contaminated with blood and other bodily fluids (e.g. from discarded diagnostic samples), cultures and stocks of infectious agents from laboratory work (e.g. waste from autopsies and infected animals from laboratories), or waste from patients with infections (e.g. swabs, bandages and disposable medical devices)

2. Pathological waste: human tissues, organs or fluids, body parts and contaminated animal dead bodies

What is A Smart Energy Home?

Smart homes use internet - connected devices to enable remote monitoring and management of appliances and systems, such as temperature, lighting, and security cameras. Smart energy homes take a step beyond the gadget-filled smart home to focus on bringing smart functionality to major household energy-using systems like HVAC, water heating, and plug loads (including appliances and electronics).

Climate change impacts

• Climate change is a crucial factor behind cyclone Tauktae

• Global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since 1970

• Led to anomalous ocean warming in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, which in turn makes cyclones intensify rapidly

• India will see more frequent cyclones every year due to global warming

Nearly 70% of the world’s population will live in cities by the year 2050, and cities currently pump out 70% of greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings alone contribute nearly 40% of emissions. This is also true for Indian cities, which are responsible for 40% of the energy use, 30% of raw material use, and 20% of land use. The residential and commercial buildings account for 31 % of the electricity consumption and are rising at 10-12 % annually. As per estimates, approximately 75% of the building stock that India will see in the year 2047 is yet to be built. For all these issues, renewable energy is the major solution.

Introduction

Developing means of farming and agriculture is the reason humans can live in the world today. It is a necessary means of survival, without which there would be famines all over the world. For thousands of years, agriculture was a natural process that did not harm the land it was done on. In fact, farmers were able to pass down their land for many generations, and it would still be fertile as ever.

However, modern agricultural practices have started the process of agricultural pollution. This process causes the degradation of the ecosystem, land, and environment due to the modern-day by-products of agriculture.