eChapters

Accurate mix calculation is essential for achieving the desired composition, quality, cost, and regulatory compliance of ice cream. This chapter introduces methods used to calculate formulations based on fat, milk solids-not-fat, sugar, total solids, and other components. It explains the Pearson’s Square method, serum-point calculations, simple mix calculations, and least-cost formulation approaches. The chapter demonstrates how mathematical formulation can translate ingredient specifications into a practical manufacturing recipe. Proper calculation helps maintain consistency between batches while controlling ingredient costs and product characteristics. The chapter therefore provides a practical foundation for students, technologists, and manufacturers involved in formulation development, production planning, cost optimization, and quality management.

6.1. Calculation of Energy Requirements for Field Operations
The energy needs for a certain field activity can be determined by adding the amounts of human, bullock, mechanical, and/or electric energy consumed.

Operational Costs for Various Power Sources
Manual power

In the case of human labour, the wages of unskilled employment are charged on an hourly or daily basis (as determined by the location).In the case of research farms, the costs for operating a pair of bullocks are determined on the basis of the cost of a pair of bullocks, the salary of an operator, the cost of bullock feed, and any other expenditures (as imposed in a given location). For the farmer’s fields, however, the real hiring expenses are used as the foundation.

27.1. What?

Seed drills are designed to sow seeds at the recommended seed rate with precision and at the desired depth. Proper adjustments are made to the seed metering system to ensure efficient use of seed drills. This aspect is vital to have a good crop stand.

The seed size varies between crop and their varieties. In addition, the seed metering systems are based on volume displacement. Therefore, if one lot of seeds varies in size and weight from another, two different amounts or number of seeds will be metered if the drill setting is not changed. For this reason, metering systems should be calibrated each time when put to use.

The method of calibration will be given in detail in the manual provided along with the seed drill.

Introduction 
Having explored the fundamental principles and various types of elementary crop growth models in the previous chapter, we now arrive at a pivotal juncture in their journey from theoretical constructs to practical, dependable tools. It‘s one thing to conceptualize and build a mathematical representation of crop growth; it‘s quite another to ensure that this model accurately reflects realworld plant behavior and can be reliably used for predicting outcomes and informing critical agricultural decisions. This chapter, Calibration, Validation, Verification, and Sensitivity of Elementary Crop Models,” will guide you through the indispensable processes that establish a model‘s credibility and utility. We will delve into the systematic steps involved in calibration, where we meticulously fine-tune a model‘s parameters to accurately reflect a specific crop‘s response within a particular environment, effectively adapting the general model to local conditions. Following this, we will explore validation, a rigorous process of independently testing the model‘s predictive power against datasets not used during calibration, ensuring its robustness and generalizability. Beyond accuracy, we will also cover verification, which confirms the model‘s logical consistency and computational correctness, ensuring that its internal workings are sound. Finally, we will examine sensitivity analysis, a crucial technique for understanding how changes in various input factors—especially weather parameters—or internal model coefficients influence the model‘s outputs, thereby revealing the model‘s critical drivers and potential vulnerabilities. These four processes are far more than mere technical formalities; they form the bedrock upon which the utility, accuracy, and trustworthiness of any crop model, no matter how elementary, are firmly built. By engaging with these essential steps, we can transform theoretical frameworks into powerful instruments capable of supporting sustainable agricultural planning, risk management, and adaptive strategies in a dynamic climate.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

Abstract

Traditionally remote sensing technology has been widely used in the mapping and change detection of vegetation features. Of late research has shown that remote sensing technology can be successfully employed for retrieval of biophysical parameters of vegetation, either by statistical techniques or by employing radiative transfer models (RTMs). This paper gives an introduction to leaf and canopy RTMs, especially about PROSAIL, which is the most commonly used model. It reviews different techniques for inverting RTM models, their merits and performance comparison. The main techniques briefly described are iterative optimization, look-up table, artificial neural network, genetic algorithm and support vector machine. At the end, it gives examples of applications which use canopy biophysical parameters retrieved by inverting RTM.

Keywords: Radiative transfer, PROSAIL, Inversion, Vegetation

1.0 Introduction

Accurate quantitative estimation of vegetation biophysical variables is useful for a large variety of agricultural, ecological, and meteorological applications (Houborg et al., 2007). The spatial and temporal distribution of these variables are important inputs into models quantifying the exchange of energy and matter between the land surface and the atmosphere, developing better yield prediction models and detecting abiotic stresses at regional scales. Among the many vegetation characteristics leaf area index, leaf chlorophyll content and leaf water content are of prime importance (Bacour et al., 2006; Houborg et al., 2007).

ABSTRACT

The rapid growth in population has created the need of industrialization and as a result there has been a significant increase in milk production and processing. Milk is a commodity which is consumed by persons of all age groups due to its nutritive value and health promoting attributes. However, the rapid growth in dairy sector has adversely affected the environment by emitting various greenhouse gases and thereby, resulting in global warming. Apart from it, there has been an increased usage of non- renewable resources like natural gas and coal in dairy sector. As a result, a viable balance has to be maintained between milk production and processing, environmental health and the rapidly growing population. This can only be achieved with the application of green or environment friendly technologies in all the stages of milk production and processing. This chapter will mainly deal with the various sources of greenhouse gases from dairy sector and on application of life cycle assessment and carbon foot printing for computing the impact of greenhouse gases on the environment. Also, this chapter will enclose various green technologies which can be applied in dairy sector to curb the greenhouse gas emissions.

Keywords: Carbon footprint, LCA, Greenhouse gases, Green Technology, Milk production, Milk Processing

Introduction

Today, according to Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement (GLADA), nearly one forth area of our world land has been degraded (Arora 2019). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is leading the issues of soil or land degradation to restore valuable natural resources for achieving a land degradation neutral world by 2030 (Cowie et al., 2018; IPBES, 2018; Bhattacharya, 2020). Land degradation neutrality (LDN) can be achieved primarily through adoption of sustainable land management practices. Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a multifunctional role and is sensitive to land management practices and a key indicator of soil quality, soil health and LDN. Soil is a major reservoir of terrestrial C in the biosphere and plays an important role in global C cycle. Therefore, a little change in SOC pool can significantly influence the atmospheric CO2 concentration. In general, 1 Pg of SOC stock is equivalent to about 0.47 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere, and vice versa (Lal, 2018). Besides this it maintains overall soil sustainability and enhances food security.

Achieving carbon neutrality in Indian soils is a major challenge. Because, productive land goes out of cultivation and marginal or degraded land comes under cultivation due to urbanization, industrialization and various development activities. Also, it is very difficult to increase SOC because climatic condition prevails with a high rate of decomposition. According to an UN report, India will be the most populated country in the world and expected to add 273 million people between 2019 and 2050 which will exert huge pressure on natural resources, particularly soil and water to fulfil the increasing food demands of such ever-growing population. The extensive use of natural resources along with intensive cultivation will enhance greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, slow down agricultural productivity, enhance land degradation, and decline factor productivity of major production systems. Due to change in distribution of rainfall and concurrent rise in temperature owing to climate change, the fertile top soil becomes more prone to degradation.

4.1 Introduction

Biomass is referred to as an indirect source of solar energy and considered a source of stored chemical energy. Biomass is renewable organic material derived from plants and animals serving as sources of energy. Biomass produced from agricultural sector is big challenges for all over the world due to its improver disposal. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring adequate global food supplies represent two of the last decade’s mostdifficult challenges.Although global food production has benefitted from chemical fertilizers, environmental problems have emerged as a result of their use. Additionally, overuse of fertilizers can result in hardened soil, decreased soil fertility, polluted air and water, and the release of greenhouse gases. There is an urgent need to find an alternative to chemical fertilizers that, ideally, can be sourced in abundant amounts, promotes global food production, enhances CO₂ capture , and does not affect soil health or damage the environment¹. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is crucial to maintain adequate levels of organic matter in the soil to preserve its physical, chemical, and biological integrity. Biochar, a pyrogenic black carbon, may play an important role in improving soil health, resulting in higher crop yield and absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Biochar is the most auspicious straw management measures and have highest carbon abatement and economic profit².

Biochar is produced by heating biomass at high temperatures (300 – 600 °C) in a closed reactor containing no to partial levels of air. Under these conditions, biomass undergoes thermo-chemical conversion into biochar. Because of its numerous potentials uses in agriculture, energy, and the environment, much attention has been given to biochar in both political and academic areas. Biochar can be used in a variety of applications such as energy production, agriculture, carbon sequestration, waste water treatment, and bio-refinery; additionally, biochar provides an alternative strategy for managing organic waste. These advantages have renewed the interest of agricultural researchers in producing biochar from bio-residues and using the product as a soil amendment.

Crop performance depends on how closely environmental conditions match genetic requirements. Cardinal temperatures define the minimum, optimum and maximum thresholds within which germination, growth and development occur. This chapter explains these thresholds and presents their relevance to major crops. It also examines rainfall, sunshine, humidity, photoperiod and other agroclimatic requirements determining where and when crops can be cultivated successfully. Knowledge of crop-specific requirements supports agroclimatic zoning, variety selection, sowing-date adjustment and assessment of climate-change impacts. Matching crops and cultivars to suitable environmental conditions reduces weather-related risk, improves resource efficiency and helps realize crop-yield potential under present and changing climatic conditions.

Study of Carpentry Hand Tool

Introduction

The process of making the wooden components is called carpentry. Carpentry deals with the mechanical work of making wood components such as making beds, roofs, wardrobes, tables, cases, utensils, floors, etc. It manages the structure work, furniture, cabinet making and so on joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the significant activities in all wood works.

The products produced are used in making furniture, musical instruments, and building constructions like doors, windows, desks, chairs, cupboards, etc., of a place utilizing a specific kind of wood with the help of tools known as carpentry tools. Different wooden pieces are connected to make a useful product. Wood is used to make furniture, boxes, doors, windows, industrial floors, stairs, pencils etc.

Cartography has much back history than what we seen in portable form by its name or definition. Many prehistoric painting of caves had their own time frame record of maps, artifacts and design have been preserved hoping that they are sufficient to the era of forgotten habit and culture, and treasure explicit ancient world. The ancient wall painting of seventh millenium BC, might have indication of oldest maps in the world and the painting is assumed to be the location of ancient city Antolia as Mellaart, depicted 1967. Onward 600 BC, the modern form of cartography started to develop map. The pioneer contribution in map designing and development, old Greek and Roman were main contributor in this direction. One Greek Philoshopher Ptolemmy, multi-talented genius are recalled in this context, who later credited with first documented map of world during production of Geographica, is a treatise on cartography, very soon one Arabian Scholar Muhammad Al-Idrisi prepared a medieval Atlas involving knowledge of world collected by Arabic merchants in 1154.

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

21.1 Introduction

The industrial revolution, which began in the early 18th century in some countries of Europe, set in motion new forces in the environment and greatly changed the pattern of social life. Rapid industrialization and urbanization subsequently brought many changes in the environment and ecosystem. India also witnessed a phenomenon of industrial growth in the post independent era. Progress in the industrial development in Tamil Nadu during recent past is appreciable. New industries developed, existing industries expanded and new technologies are introduced.

In India, the past decades have witnessed population explosion and increase in per capita consumption of food and consumer goods. These have led to the proportionate increase in the domestic and industrial wastes. The waste is continuously increasing at an alarming rate. By the end of this century, India’s population is likely to increase from the present level of 700 million to about billion. Similarly the per capita consumption of food has been estimated to increase by 40% resulting in double production and disposal of industrial and domestic wastes (Manivanan, 2004).

Apart from the quantitative increase there will be also a qualitative change in the waste product, which are likely to contain greater amount of oil, toxic chemicals, detergents and dyes. A large number of these compounds are non-degradable and are cumulative, thus rendering the toxic products. Certain group of plants like algae and bacteria are selective in their functions and can executive certain toxic chemicals and heavy metals. The microorganism communities are helping in effective recycling of industrial effluents.

The government is taking serious efforts to keep the production of toxic substances under strict control at production centers. It carefully watches the efforts that are made to discharge the toxic waste from industries within the permissible limits and usages of toxic chemicals within the prescribed limits. The majority of rural population being uneducated is prone to excessive use of water which has become pollutant. The pollutant ultimately is drained into the natural aquatic environment, the rivers and the oceans. A part of these wastes are recycled and they again enter the food chain and cause detrimental effects to human health. Thus in nature, long and short term chain reactions are continuously in progress and these are required to be understood. Even when the best available yardsticks are applied to conserve the environment. It is a stupendous task to enforce these regulations.

In addition to production of more waste the coming years will see a qualitative change in the composition of waste. These wastes are likely to contain greater amount of toxic chemicals, detergents, non-degradable products based on hydrocarbons, and its derivatives. Large amount of wastes which are non degradable and cumulative in nature produce a series of new and complex problems. Therefore, alternative methods should develop for treatment and disposal of cumulative and nondegradable chemicals and pollutants.

Easykrishi is a young enterprise that uses digital interventions with an aim to change agricultural practices from Reactive Mode to Proactive Mode. It is a consortium of 12 FPOs and 150 Ground Organizations. 14 In a world of declining land-holdings, we realize aggregation of agricultural resources is the only way to keep this planet sustainable for human survival. Aggregation ensures viability and profitability of Agriculture. Easykrishi’s baby steps in the entire cycle of aggregation of agricultural resources have made significant impact for Food Producer Corporations across Karnataka and they have made a mark on organizations and individuals that are dedicated for the betterment of Agriculture and farmers.

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Introduction 
Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) is a species of annual and perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae (USDA, 2016). It is the sole species in the monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied using modern genetic tools (Institute for Genome Sciences, 2009). Castor reproduces with a mixed pollination system that favors selfing by geitonogamy but can also be pollinated by wind (anemophily) or insects (entomophily) (Rizzardo et al.,2012). Native to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, castor is now widespread throughout tropical regions (Phillips & Rix, 2002). The plant is known for its seeds, which contain 40-60% oil, primarily composed of triglycerides such as ricinolein. However, the seeds also contain ricin, a watersoluble toxin present in lower concentrations throughout the plant. Ricinus communis exhibits significant variability in its growth habit and appearance, with cultivars selected for leaf and flower colours as well as oil production. Castor bean is a fast-growing shrub that can reach up to 12 meters in height, although it is not cold hardy. Its stems spherical, spiny seed capsules also vary in pigmentation. In some varieties, the fruit capsules are more attractive than the flowers. Ongoing research aims to better understand the plant’s evolution and its relationship to other species, while its unique characteristics and diverse uses make it an important subject of study. The monoecious castor plant bears unisexual male and female flowers in terminal panicle-like inflorescences (Fig :1). Male flowers are yellowish-green with creamy stamens, while fewer female flowers have prominent red stigmas (Oliver and Lee, 2010). The spiny capsule fruit contains large, oval, poisonous seeds with a caruncle that aids ant-mediated dispersal. Improving castor bean (Ricinus communis) cultivation for biodiesel production involves a combination of genetic, agronomic, and technological strategies aimed at enhancing yield, oil quality and sustainability. Genetic improvement focuses on developing high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties through traditional breeding, molecular techniques like marker-assisted selection (MAS), and advanced tools such as CRISPR-Cas9 for targeted gene editing. Efforts are directed at optimizing oil content, improving fatty acid profiles for biodiesel, and reducing toxins like ricin. Agronomic practices play a crucial role, including the adoption of efficient planting densities, intercropping systems, and soil and

Introduction: Indoor Air Pollution

People think that while they are indoors, they are breathing clean air. After all, pollution is found outside, and indoor air is filtered through the HVAC system.

Indoor air can have significantly higher concentrations of pollution than air found outside. Plenty of evidences exists. Global Burden of Disease Risk lists indoor air pollution as the ninth biggest health risk.

Introduction 
The world is reaching a crucial moment in the energy sector as the third decade of the twenty-first century unfolds (Azarpour et al., 2022). Concern over the prospects of our energy supplies has increased globally because of the key priorities posed by climate change and the necessity for economic stability and energy security. The transition to energy from renewable sources is widely viewed as a crucial component in transforming our relationship with nature, the economy, and cultural values (O'Connor and Cleveland, 2014; Hassan et al., 2024). Reducing the usage of fossil fuels in our energy supply systems is known as an energy transition (Cherp, Jewell and Goldthau, 2011). Fossil fuels, such as crude oil, and natural gas, supply a substantial share of the world's energy. Interest in energy transitions has grown because, in addition to the fact that most fossilfuel resources are reserve-based, burning the vast amounts of fossil fuels that are currently available, and the resulting environmental effects are the main drivers of energy transitions (Crow, Brown and De Young, 2006). Bioenergy refers to renewable energy produced from materials derived from biological sources. Any organic substance such as plants, agricultural or forestry residues, or the organic portion of industrial and municipal trash that stores solar energy as chemical energy is considered a biomass feedstock. The first energy source that humans employed was biomass, which could supply roughly onefourth of the world's primary energy, or 138 EJ (exajoules) (calculated by averaging estimated numbers from five reports) (Welfle, 2017). Because of its versatility in producing various forms of energy and chemicals, bioenergy is a desirable energy choice for all stages of development. It has a great potential for integration with current infrastructures, may produce energy that may be dispatched to balance changing demands, and most importantly provides energy with lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel pathways, unlike many other renewable energy sources (Demirbas, 2008). It is anticipated that sustainable renewable energy sources, including biomass, sun (heat energy and PV (photovoltaic)), wind, hydroelectricity, geothermal, and wave and tidal energy sources, are expected to play a vital role in the future global energy supply (Panwar, Kaushik and Kothari, 2011). Compared to other sources of sustainable and clean energy, biological feedstock offers the advantage of being able to be stored and being easily accessible year-round from a variety of sources. Estimates suggest that biomass contributed 10% of the global energy demand in 2008 (Main-Knorn et al., 2013), with further advancements expected to increase this contribution by two to six times by 2050 (Zema et al., 2012). It is believed that biomass is a distinctive and promising form of "green" energy. It is abundantly found in nature and can be easily produced in most rural environments (Broda, Yelle and Serwanska, 2022). Biomass sources are generally classified into two categories: inherent and processed materials, the most common forms of sources comprise, wood, logging wastes, animal dung, aquatic plants and algae, agricultural crop waste products and processing residues, and municipal solid waste. Additionally, three categories have been established for biomass resources. Wastes include agricultural remnants, agricultural processing by-products and wastes, urban wood debris, urban organic materials, and wastes from mills. Forest goods include bark, sawdust, logging leftovers, timber, trees, plants, and wood debris from land clearing. Bioenergy crops encompass grasses, fast-growing woody plants, woody herbaceous plants, oilseed plants (soybean, sunflower, and safflower), sugar crops (cane and beet), and starch plants (corn, wheat, and barley) (Qian, Malmali and Wickramasinghe, 2016). Growers favour energy plants, sometimes referred to as

Cellulosic ethanol refers to the production of ethanol, an alcohol fuel, from cellulose found in plant fibers rather than from seeds or fruits. This biofuel can be derived from various sources such as grasses, wood, and other plants. The fibrous components of these plants are mostly from crop residues and other sources indigestible for animals, except for ruminants like cows and sheep, as well as hindgut fermenters like horses, rabbits, and rhinos. The interest in cellulosic ethanol stems from its potential economic value. Plant growth and cellulose formation serve as a mechanism to capture and store solar energy in a chemically stable manner, facilitating easy transport and storage of the resulting supplies. Moreover, the ability of grasses and trees to grow in temperate regions makes cellulosic ethanol commercially viable and offers a potential solution from non-food sources other than grain and tuber starch. This cellulosic ethanol development in the biofuel industry presents an opportunity to derive carbonaceous liquid fuels and petrochemicals, which are vital for our current standard of living, in a balanced and renewable manner by recycling carbon from the surface and atmosphere through any kind of plant orgin or any plant or tree species, Additionally, commercially viable cellulosic ethanol could mitigate the issue associated with conventional biofuels based on grains, which compete with food production and may lead to increased food prices. However, the production of cellulosic ethanol is currently economically feasible and has been implemented on a large scale in India. Several 2G ethanol plants are being developed by companies like Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL). Different types of biomass contain varying amounts of sugars, and the complexity of the biomass is determined by the structural and carbohydrate components. Plant biomass mainly consists of lignin (13.6-28.1%), cellulose (40.6-51.2%) and hemicellulose (28.5-37.2%), which serve as the raw materials for fuel production. The conversion of biomass into sugars is a crucial step in biofuel production. Therefore, selecting an appropriate pretreatment process based on the biomass type is essential to achieve optimal sugar yield with minimal energy input.