eChapters

During most of the years, there will be loss of agricultural production by at least 15 to 20 per cent per annum due to unfavourable weather situations. The farmers practicing agriculture expect uniform returns every year as the investment costs are much higher and cannot afford loss in production. Of late, the inter-seasonal and intra seasonal variations in weather are very frequent. The weather conditions observed were found to exceed even beyond known limits. Exceptional deviation from any one single weather parameter like air temperature, rainfall and wind can trigger considerable loss in production or sometimes even crop failure (Fig.12.1). Fig. 12.1: Components of a microclimate and its interlinkages Large scale weather modification is not practicable to a greater extent as uniform results cannot be expected under these conditions. There is need to explore cost effective management options that may significantly alter some weather parameter that is detrimental to crop production at field level by the farmers themselves. Therefore, microclimatic modification is an emerging technology to alter or change the unfavourable weather conditions detrimental to crop growth using cost effective and easily manageable techniques for minimizing the loss in crop production. The options for microclimatic modification have to be decided based on whether and the nature of weather aberrations. For example, dry spells are most common during rainy season in most of the arid and semi-arid regions. The farmers growing crops under rainfed conditions suffer considerable loss in production due to occurrence of dry spells as the crop experiences moisture stress. These dry spells may occur any time during the growing season. In such situations, the farmer needs to adopt a management option even before sowing a crop. Sometimes, the occurrence of weather aberration cannot be anticipated and the farmer has to prepare for adopting a management option based on weather forecast. Such measures are temporary and needs to be adopted to ward off the unfavourable weather conditions to a certain extent. Microclimatic modification can be a permanent, seasonal or temporary option depending upon the climate of the region. The crop microclimate refers to the climate just above and within the crop canopy and in the soil root zone that can be influenced by the day-today management practices. Microclimate modification is a measure to change or regulate the weather parameter at farm level. The microclimate management option also depends upon the nature and type of the soil as well.

Abstract

Tremendous hike inworld population has increased thrust on the limited resources which has considerably affected the viability of the food. The emerging challenge for policy makers and food scientists is to put forward viable solutions. Utilization of underutilized crops/plants that act as good sources of starch could be explored in a better way for the sustenance of the limited sources like food crops/plants. The demand for starch and the foods containing starch has been increasing continually. Since, the starch in its native form has certain limitations in its functional properties to be used for different applications. Therefore, it becomes important to explore certain technologies which could be used for modification of starch. Among different technologies gamma irradiation ensures food safety while inducing physicochemical changes of the components. Although, the chemical modifications have been used widely so far but the concerns related to the chemical residues left are diminishing their demand. Hence, the physical processes particularly the gamma irradiation process has emerged as an efficient alternative with some benefits over other process like eco-friendly, economical, reliable and safe for altering the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the product. Gamma Irradiation of starch has been successfully employed for the achievement of some desired physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of the foods and other related items. In this chapter, valuable impact of gamma irradiation on the physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of starch has been summarized.

17.1 Modules

• A module is a file containing python definitions and statements.

• A python module is (.py file) containing variables, class definitions, statement and function related to a particular task. The major feature of having module is that its content can be reused in other programs, without having to rewrite or recreate them.

• They are executed only the first time the module name is encounter in an import statement.

Type of modules:

• User defined modules

• Built-in modules

Ex.-array, math, numpy, sys, etc.

India is an agricultural country. The geographical area of India is about 328 mha out of which 147 mha of land under cultivation and 84-mha land is under irrigation. The population is increasing at an alarming rate that requires producing more food for the growing population. This problem can be solved either by increasing the land under irrigation or using different soil water conservation techniques. It is well known fact that during rainfall a considerable amount of water goes to sea due to high rate of runoff. It is highly needed to trap as much as water falling in the form of rainfall and recharge the groundwater so that it is made available for irrigation purposes.

Term moisture stress is generally applied to the stomata opening and transpiration increases with time until they close due to high temperature.

5.1. Causes of moisture stress in plants

Main reason is extent of transpiration which is affected by leaf size and composition, size and distribution of stomata on leaf, atmospheric humidity, temperature, wind velocity and day length.

High atmospheric temperature due to intense sun and increased transpiration causes closure of stomata and wilting of leaves even, if soil moisture content is not limiting.

This deficit is made up during night due to decreased transpiration.

In plants, moisture content decreases either due to increased transpiration or reduction in absorption or both.

Abstract

Anantapur is the driest district of Andhra Pradesh and hence, agriculture conditions are very often precarious. Groundnut grows where other crops fail and thus it is the predominant crop of Anantapur district. Groundnut is grown in about 7.5 lakh ha in Anantapur district; however the average yields are low at 500 kg ha^-1. Among various available vegetation indices, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) is widely used for all reasons, which is a single numerical indicator of presence and condition of green vegetation. NDVI mapping at a regional scale helps to assess the spatial changes in the vigour of green vegetation and thus occurrence of any moisture stress. Climate tools have a great role in understanding the crop performance and estimating the yields. This study was taken up by using freely available MODIS data to understand NDVI in terms of abiotic stresses over Anantapur district and linking with the actual rainfall conditions, groundnut crop acreage and production. Results indicate that low groundnut yields in general could be related to NDVI-based stress measurements and rainfall quantum and distribution in the area however, with a few exceptions. It is hoped that by combining improved practices through IWM with climate-adapted crop varieties, rainfed farmers of Anantapur district can sustain their crop production under present climate variability and become resilient to future climate change.

Keywords: Climate, MODIS, NDVI, Anantapur, Groundnut, Integrated Watershed Management

Introduction

Improvement of wheat grain quality depends on the knowledge of quality requirements of different end-use products and the genetic components controlling different quality traits. In previous chapters we have dealt in-depth with quality requirements of different end-use products and their genetic components. Depending upon the goal of quality improvement, different strategies are adopted to improve wheat quality. It depends upon the number of genes controlling the traits as well as the availability of the simple methods for phenotyping the traits especially during early segregating generations. In addition stability analysis of the traits across the environments is essential before we go for breeding. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria. Knowledge of germplasm lines having specific quality traits is needed to initiate breeding for the improvement of wheat grain quality for different end-use products. The quality requirements of different major end-use products are provided in the following table (Table 1).

Key words : GPS, GIS, DSS, SDSS, RS, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Ground Water Exploration, Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water, Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM).

Introduction

Water is one of the most precious gifts of nature to living beings and particularly to the mankind. On account of erratic distribution of rainfall both in time and space, the country is subjected to cycles of floods and droughts. With the increase in demand for water for various purposes and to mitigate the twin problems of floods and droughts faced by the country, a coordinated approach for optimum utilization and proper management of this precious resource is of prime importance. In addition, proper development and management of both irrigation and drainage systems are essential. This would require integrated management of surface water as well as gorund water. All the water related problems whether mitigating droughts or floods or better irrigation management practices, dictate for adoption of state of the art water management practices. Water management deals with the control, distribution and allocation of water flows and the treatment of rivers and catchments, consequently, solutions to many of the problems in water management require the knowledge and expertise from diverse sources.

Monitoring the microclimate inside protected cultivation systems—such as greenhouses, polyhouses, net houses, and other semi-controlled environments— plays a crucial role in modern agricultural practices that aim to enhance crop productivity, quality, and resource efficiency. As global demand for high-quality and high-yield crops continues to rise, protected agriculture has become a key solution for mitigating the effects of climate variability, pest infestations, and limited available land. However, the effectiveness of these systems largely depends on the ability to continuously monitor and regulate the essential microclimatic factors that directly influence plant health, disease resistance, and overall productivity. Microclimate refers to the localized climate conditions within a specific area— in this case, within the protected structure—that can differ significantly from external environmental conditions. Key parameters typically monitored include temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation or light intensity, carbon dioxide (CO?) concentration, vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and air movement or circulation. These factors are interrelated, and even minor fluctuations can greatly impact plant health, photosynthesis, transpiration, and reproduction. Thus, accurate and continuous monitoring of these variables is essential for effective climate control and optimal crop growth.
Temperature is arguably the most critical variable, as it controls metabolic processes, enzyme function, flowering time, and fruit development. A deviation from the ideal temperature range can either accelerate or stunt plant growth, leading to reduced yields or even crop failure. In tropical or semi-arid climates, temperature spikes inside protected structures can result in heat stress, while in temperate or mountainous regions, low temperatures can hinder growth. To mitigate this, temperature sensors—such as thermistors, RTDs, or thermocouples— are placed at different heights and zones within the structure to ensure uniform monitoring. These sensors typically transmit real-time data to centralized systems that control heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. Along with temperature,

The word ‘monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word mawsim meaning season. The Arabs during their travel towards India recognised that by June strong southwesterly winds commence over the Arabian Sea and bring a lot of rains to the subcontinent. The term was first used in English in British India and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area. In the Indian subcontinent, monsoon is one of the oldest weather observations, an economically important weather pattern over June through September every year, and the most anticipated weather event and unique weather phenomenon. Due to its effects on agriculture, flora and fauna, and other economic, social, and environmental effects, a monsoon is one of the most anticipated, followed and studied weather phenomena of the Indian subcontinent. It has significant impact on the overall well-being of subcontinent residents.

The term ‘monsoon’ is customarily used in India to refer to the rainy season during the northern hemisphere summer from June to September and is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea. Now the term monsoon has been broadened to include almost all of the phenomena associated with the annual weather cycle within the tropical and subtropical land regions of the earth.

ABSTRACT

As we all know that emergence of internet has completely changed the way of transferring knowledge. Online videos and lectures have been adopted by the online educational community to meddle into the MOOCs massively to disperse the knowledge. No field has remained untouched from MOOCs. This is basically a study on the available MOOCs in India in Library and Information science.

Keywords: MOOCs, Massive Open Online Course, SWAYAM, Library and Information Science.

1. Introduction

Dave Cormier devised the term Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) in 2008 to describe an open online course “Connectivism and Connective Knowledge” designed by Siemens and Downes. University of Manitoba offered MOOC for the first time in 2008 formally as a credit course to regular students and informally with enrolment open to anybody in the world free of cost. Since then, there is proliferation of MOOCs worldwide.

It is estimated that the country needs about 245mt of food grains, 30mt of sugar and jaggery, 7 lakh of tea, 1.7 lakh t of coffee, 10mt of vegetable oil and 17m bales of cotton. For realizing this, irrigated agriculture has to play an important role. To achieve this water use efficiency (WUE) in the irrigation sector has to be improved considerably as bulk of the available water is used in agriculture. But, with the ever-increasing population and industrialization problems, the demand for water by these sectors is bound to increase manyfolds in future. The requirement of water by different sectors during 2025 is estimated to be 105 m ham, which is 30 m ha m more than the present one. The share of water utilization for agriculture is expected to get reduced from the present percentage of 8~ to a value of 73 by 2025. Further, the demand for water for agricultural purposes is estimated to increase from 470 krrr’ to 740 krrr’ in a period of four decades (Table 1). During the same period there will be four­fold increase in the water demand for non-agriculture purposes.

Abstract

There is a consensus amongst the geoscientists that overall there has been progradation along the east and west coasts of peninsular India. However, the present day configuration of the coasts and some of the geomorphologic features such as absence of spit and delta along west coast and absence of major estuaries and petroliferous structures along east coast still remain controversial. The present study, based on the appreciation of certain geomorphological and tectonic features on Landsat imagery and aerial photographs of southern part of Indian Peninsula, suggests that the evolution of the coastline has been mainly controlled by tectonism.

The tapering nature of the coastline is attributed to the Precambrian orographic axis. The serrated nature of the post Precambrian coast line is due to the Precambrian transverse faults, whereas the serrated margin of the post Gondwana, Post cretaceous and post Tertiary coast lines are attributed once again to the Precambrian faults reactivated time and again. During the Quaternary period the coast line has undergone many modifications. The coast line attained sinuosity due to Pleistocene folding which is well manifested by river migration. The coast line was subsequently faulted and shifted with en echelon pattern due to N-S regional compression which is referable to the collision of Indian Plate with Tibetan plate.

Mosaic is the combination of two or more raster images into single image. Sometimes, single image captured by remote sensing satellite doesn’t completely covers the desired study area mostly. Therefore, users resort for mosaicking two or more images captured by satellite sensors from different paths so that the whole study area is merged into a single raster image to facilitate the image processing and analysis. The pixel size of the raster images should be same for mosaicking.

In most of the cases, there is spatial overlapping among the raster images from which we want to create mosaic. These overlapping areas are handled in multiple ways which is being discussed further using R – code example. For mosaicking raster images in R, mosaic function of the raster package is used.

MS-ACCESS is a very powerful RDBMS (Data Base Management System) which manages data in term of special table called relation. Using MS-ACCESS you can manage all your information from a single database file. Database files are stored with extension. MDB.

ACCESS stores information in the form of tables and you build your database on its basis. Each row in a table holds all information’s & for a particular person it is called a record. And each column contains different pieces of information regarding that person, like Roll No, Name, Class, Address etc. Same as MSACCESS involves.

In ACCESS, you have few things known as Forms, Reports and Queries. They allow you to check and get desired information as and when required.

15.1. Minimum Support Price (MSP)

MSP are announced by GOI at beginning of sowing season for certain crops on basis of recommendations of CACP.

MSP is price fixed by GOI to protect producer - farmers against excessive fall in price during bumper production years.

Guarantee price for their produce from the Government.

Objectives are to support farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for PDS.

The word mulch was coined by Wagganor in 1960. It is derived from the German word ‘molsch’ means “easy to decay,” and mulches have widely been used for vegetable production since ancient times (Lightfoot 1994). Therefore the term mulching refers to the practice of covering the soil surface with different organic and inorganic materials, known as mulch materials to reduce moisture loss, balance wide variations in diurnal soil temperatures especially in the root zone, control weeds, insect-pests and diseases and finally enhance crop yield (Nalayini 2007; Kader et al. 2019).

ABSTRACT

Mangrove wetlands are well known as the dominant feature of the intertidal areas of the tropical and subtropical regions. Ecologically mangrove forests are important for their inherent biological productivity in the habitat and also by exporting organic matter produced into coastal waters. Apart from that mangroves act as bioshield against natural coastal hazards like cyclones, storms and tsunamis. Remote sensing coupled with GIS is an important tool in monitoring the coastal areas such as mangroves, where the physical survey is difficult and time consuming. Remote sensing has a wide range of products with higher spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions, the combination of which can be applied in different themes based on the requirement. The present study used multispectral, multi-temporal and high-resolution remote sensing data to map and monitor the distribution of mangrove forest of Pichavaram, south India over a period of 30 years. The study shows that the mangrove area had decreased from 628 ha to 411 ha from 1977 to 1994 and increased to 858 ha in 2006. The high resolution remote sensing data with 4 m spatial resolution was used to prepare the mangrove wetland map in 1:5000 scale.

Keywords : Mangroves, remote sensing, visual interpretation, IRS, IKONOS

Introduction

Time series data is data that has been collected in a specific pattern with time stamps. (Nayak and Ghosh, 2013). This type of time-oriented data is collected at regular intervals, such as hourly, daily, monthly, or weekly. Time series data can be used to make accurate predictions in a variety of fields and domains, such as foreign currency rates, stock market trends, energy consumption estimates, and climate change. Machine learning and data mining techniques can be used to uncover hidden patterns in historical data and forecast future trends (Aftab et al. 2018a, 2018b, Mishra et al. 2017).

Weather forecasting based on historical data is a complex but very beneficial task that comes with several issues that must be resolved to achieve optimal results (Wu and Chau, 2013). Weather data includes attributes or features such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed. Machine learning techniques are used to forecast future weather conditions by identifying hidden patterns and relationships in historical weather data (Aftab et al. 2018b). Prediction of precipitation is an important part of the weather forecasting process. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques is regarded as a critical component in farmer services and policy formulation. Farmers require weather forecasting to plan their activities following the predicted weather. Accurate and timely rainfall prediction in farming, in particular, can be extremely beneficial in planning and security measures for operations, agricultural tasks, water reservoir systems, and construction and transportation activities (Chau and Wu, 2010). Forecasting rainfall will become increasingly important in the future.

1.1. Mushroom

Fruiting body of fungus appears above ground and contains spores.

Fungi are network of fine microscopic threads collectively known as mycelium.

Fungi are the part of the plant kingdom and don’t contain chlorophyll and root system.

Mushroom comes under sub division Basidiomycotina, order – Agaricales.

Refers to entire operation of the induction and isolation of mutants.

Term mutation was introduced by Hugo de vries in 1900 in connection with sudden heritable changes observed by him in Oenothera.

Abstract

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring chemicals produced by fungi growing on grain, feed or food. The fungi that produce mycotoxins in grains commonly include Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The toxins can accumulate in maturing corns, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts and other food and feed crops in the field and in grain during transportation. The toxins may occur in storage under conditions favorable for the growth of the toxin producing fungi. Diseases in animals and human beings resulting from the consumption of mycotoxins are called Mycotoxicoses. These fungal metabolites are detrimental to the health of both animals and human. Toxicity ranges from acute death to chronic diseases, cancer and reproductive malfunction. Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed grains is a serious economic problem for grain producers and processors because grain contamination impacts market 

Introduction

Nanofertilizers are products of nanotechnology that are created or modified from conventional fertilizers, bulk fertilizer materials, or plant extracts. They use different methods such as chemical, physical, mechanical, or biological processes to produce nanosized particles that can enhance soil fertility, crop productivity, and quality (KhetiGaadi 2022). Nanofertilizers have a size range of 0.1–100 nm, which is similar to the size of plant cell wall (20 nm), making them easier to be absorbed by plants (Tiwari 2022).

Introduction 
There are terrible consequences of climate change for the planet and all human endeavors. According to statistics provided by the Bureau of Social and Economic Affairs which indicate the rate of increase in global human population is frightening; by 2050 (Rebello et al., 2010), the population is expected to surpass 9.8 billion people. Thus, throughout the course of 30 years from now, the community will encounter several issues that will threaten the survival of the majority of living things on Earth. These issues include the shortage of energy, global warming, greenhouse effects, poisonous gas emissions, and abrupt changes in the environment. The usage of natural fuels as our primary source of energy has raised issues in international scientific organizations, which are working to address one of the key causes of these problems (Zhu et al., 2016). The one method to address the issue is to find an environmentally sustainable fossil fuel replacement that can meet the world’s expanding energy needs (Dincer et al., 2000). Biofuels are one of the viable options and it is an alternative to fossil fuels since they are affordable and harmless to the surroundings (Ma et al., 2014). Various countries around the world are utilizing them to partially substitute the consumption of natural fuels. For example, Brazil uses sugarcane, while parts of Asia and Europe primarily rely on palm oil for production. In the case of biofuels made from microalgae, the United States, Brazil, China, and Japan are the biggest producers. Currently, biofuel generation predominantly relies on three distinct generations of raw organic resources, as outlined by Zhu et al. (2016) and Brennan et al. (2016). These groups represent different sources and technologies utilized to produce biofuels on a global scale. Biofuels classified as first-generation are those derived from feedstocks that are suitable for human intake, such as wheat, sugarcane, maize, palm oil, and sugar beet. Biofuels classified as secondgeneration are derived from lignin and cellulosic feedstock, which consists of non-food crop portions including husks, stems, and leaves that are often thrown away (Kalnes et al., 2007 ; Naik et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2016). However, these biofuel sources can partially fulfill the world’s energy demands. One method to overcome this limitation involves third-generation biofuels, which are generated by cultivating single-celled photosynthetic microorganisms capable of converting carbon dioxide and sunlight into biomass and lipid molecules used in biofuel production (Abomohra et al., 2017).

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a scientific and technological field that manipulates matter at the nanoscale to create, design, characterize, and use structures, systems, and devices with novel properties (Sattler 2016). Nanoparticles are one of the most important products of nanotechnology, as they exhibit different features from their bulk counterparts due to their size and shape (Sabir et al., 2014). Nanoparticles have applications in various disciplines, such as materials science, medicine, agriculture, physics, and chemistry.

Introduction

Nanopesticides are pesticides that use nanomaterials or nanotechnology to improve their effectiveness and safety in agriculture. Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension between 1 and 200 nm. Nanomaterials have different properties than their bulk counterparts, such as higher surface area, reactivity, and mobility. Nanopesticides can be formulated in various ways, such as nanosized active ingredients, molecular active ingredient nanocarrier complexes, or active ingredients encapsulated or coated by nanomaterials (Deka et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2022).

Introduction 
Modern energy policies place a strong emphasis on developing low-carbon energy sources while also ensuring that society has enough energy security. However, because fossil fuels play such a vital part in the global energy system, measures to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuels must be found. Researchers and scientists are examining the characteristics of materials at the nanoscale level to identify compounds that might boost the efficiency of the energy sources we now use. The physical properties of several materials (such as strength, heat conductivity, and reflectance) alter at the nanoscale in comparison to their bulk properties. When compared to their bulk properties, several materials have distinct physical properties at the nanoscale (such as strength, electrical and thermal conductivity, and reflectance). several materials on a nanoscale. Additionally, materials with nanostructures are more suited for material-to-material interactions due to their higher surface to unit weight volume ratio. This is a useful characteristic as many chemical and electrical reactions take place at surfaces and are greatly impacted by the chemical composition of the reactant and the surface’s structure. The goal of nanotechnology research in the fossil fuel industry is to create novel catalysts that will improve the energy efficiency of the fossil fuel breakdown process. Given that heavy crude oil contains sulphur. The transformation of coal into liquid fuels for use in transportation requires the employment of several kinds of catalysts. Furthermore, because of their structure and the presence of electrons in their outer orbitals, which increases the potential for chemical reactions, the majority of typical catalysts used in cars today rely on valuable metals like platinum. Concerns about the supply of precious metals are raised by the industrialised world’s transport networks’ explosive expansion. Finding more affordable and readily available substitutes is imperative given the scarcity and high cost of these materials, and this will be emphasised in the researchers’ upcoming work. Additionally, because of their unique qualities that relate to the phenomena of corrosion resistance or their exceptionally strong qualities that are advantageous in turbomachinery components, nanomaterials are also helpful in power systems (1) . The application of nanotechnology in the production of resistant ceramics for use as insulators in gearbox lines results in smooth coatings that reduce the likelihood of fouling in cooling water intakes. Additionally, nanotechnology can improve a material’s conductivity and produce a superconductor at ambient temperature rather than a superconducting characteristic at very high temperatures. Renewable energy sources—also known as “green energy”—such as solar, wind, and ocean energy— allow countries to reduce their reliance on petroleum and address environmental problems related to the use of fossil fuels. In these technologies, nanotechnology is also employed. Mao and Chen concentrated their research efforts on developing nanotechnologies for a select group of renewable energy sources, including fuel cells, solar cells, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen generation. This research aims to provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of nanotechnology’s application to the development of sustainable energy systems, including nanomaterials, nanofluids, and nanostructures.

Introduction 
The creation of molecular-scale machinery and gadgets at a few nanometers (10^-9 m), known as nanotechnology, has a substantial impact on this topic and dramatically reduces the size of a cell. To assess how nanoparticles affect the synthesis and production of biofuels, particularly biodiesels, a variety of nanomaterials, including nanofibers, nanotubes, and nanometals, are being used (1). Research on biodiesel has shown that utilizing nanotechnology and nanomaterials can be a useful approach to implementing low-cost techniques that improve manufacturing quality. Because of their tiny size and special qualities, such as a high surface area-to-volume ratio, catalytic activity, considerable crystallinity, adsorption capacity, and stability, nanoparticles (NPs) are useful in the generation of biodiesel (2). Because of their high potential recovery properties, metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are frequently used as nanocatalysts in the synthesis of biofuel and biodiesel (3, 4).This chapter critically evaluates the application of nanotechnology in the manufacturing and enhancement of biodiesel, addressing key challenges and potential advancements. Microalgae have been identified as a potentially useful feedstock for biodiesel production. The process of harvesting microalgae can be made much more efficient by employing a range of nanoparticles. Additionally, cost-cutting is facilitated by the recycling of nanomaterials and their incorporation into procedures including cell disruption, extraction, and harvesting. Furthermore, an array of nanocatalysts holds promise for enhancing the efficiency of biodiesel conversion (5). Classification of nanoparticles based on physical attributes as shown in (Fig.1). However, there is a growing emphasis on improving combustion efficiency and reducing harmful emissions in the engine industry and its associated fields. Several studies indicate that the introduction of nanoadditives into blends of diesel and biodiesel fuels has yielded significant results.

Nanotechnology-based preservation employs materials generally measuring between 1 and 100 nanometres. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio, adjustable surface chemistry and responsiveness to external stimuli enable highly controlled interactions with foods and microorganisms. Nanomaterials may deliver antimicrobial compounds, antioxidants and other active substances in a controlled or targeted manner. Silver, zinc oxide and chitosan nanoparticles can be incorporated into coatings and films to reduce microbial contamination while maintaining sensory and nutritional quality. The chapter discusses nanoencapsulation, nanoemulsions, antimicrobial nanoparticles and nanosensors for detecting spoilage and monitoring shelf life. It also considers effectiveness, controlled release, food applications, safety assessment and potential regulatory concerns associated with nanotechnology.

Introduction

In the post-world trade organization (WTO) era, the fantastic imagination of “one world for self-reliance”, has been shattered by the Corona induced calamity and the expansionists approach of a few rouge nations. Though the global welfare and peace has always been part of Indian traditional philosophy, approach and the concept of self-reliance, the practical boundary of self-reliance in its present context, starts from the country level itself. The idea of self-reliance at multiple levels (individual, family, society, and nation) has driven human civilization for most of its efforts, inventions and actions across the world.

A very high dependency of a large number of population on the natural resources in the developing world calls for proper management of natural resources for self-reliance. Since the early days of civilization, natural resources in the form of land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate have remained the very basis of supporting and sustaining life of human beings, plants and animals on the earth. However, in recent times intensive use and over-exploitation of pristine resources have robbed them of their legendry resilience. To effectively tackle the complex problems and to fulfil basic needs of livelihood, food security, poverty, employment, equity and environmental services, efficient and judicious utilization of natural resources for enhanced and sustained productivity is a matter of serious concern for policy makers, planners, scientists, conservationists and environmentalists.

Technology spurs Agricultural productivity through various scientific methods and innovations which is evidenced by the success of the Green revolution leading to agricultural development.

The Green Revolution arrived in India in 1968 and had a remarkable impact on the world of agriculture by increasing production yield by 2.5 times, amounting to approximately 2 billion tones, which has been noted as the world’s highest growth rate in the agriculture sector. Because of the science and technologies used in the form of

2.1. Rice

2.1.1. Rice root knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola)

1. Symptoms

Abstract

Satellite imagery interpretation has shown the existence of a major Palaeochannel system in the Great Indian desert. These palaeochannels belong to the mythological Sarasvati river, which seems to have flowed southwesterly close to the Aravalli hill ranges and joined the sea in the Great Rann of Kutch. Subsequently it seems to have shifted northwesterly, and more precisely in an anti-clockwise direction and got buried in the desert in Anupgarh plains. While its oldest course is the now misfit Luni river, its final trace is now represented by Ghaggar river. Whereas its overall northwesterly migration is attributed to NE-SW trending cymatogenic arching along the Great Rann of Kutch in the southwest to the Siwalik hills in the northeast, its multivariate palaeodrainage is attributed to block faulting and land subsidence in the Bikaner sector.

Introduction

The Indian fisheries sector is set in a unique and diverse set of resources ranging from the pristine waters of the Himalayas to the sprawling Indian Ocean. The fisheries biodiversity of the country encompasses a wide spectrum of physical and biological components that support the livelihoods of millions of people. Fisheries resources are set in different ecosystems. With growing population and the increasing demand for fish protein, the need for sustainable development of aquatic resources is now felt much more than ever before.

Fisheries and aquaculture remain important sources of food, nutrition, income and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world. Global capture and culture fish production during 2019 were 97 and 82 million tonnes, respectively with India being second largest producer of fish in the world after China. From 0.75 million tonnes in 1950-51, total fish production of India touched 12.59 million tonnes in 2018-19 with a contribution of 8.90 million tonnes (70.60%) from inland sector. The sunrise fisheries sector contributes about 0.96 % to National Gross Value Added (GVA) and 5.37% to agricultural GVA (2018-19) while engaging over 14.5 million people (2003 census) at the primary level and almost twice the number along the value chain. During 2018-19 the export of marine products that includes production from aquaculture reached 13,77,244 tonnes valued at INR 46589 crore (US $ 6.93 billion). The inland sector grew at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of nearly 6.5% between 1979 and 2018, while overall fish production witnessed 4.5% growth, which is double the growth rate of food grains production in India.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of India as 50% of its work is engaged in agricultural activities enabling India self-sufficiency in food production. However, agriculture sector is facing several challenges such as reduction in arable land due to urbanization and industrialization, decrease in farm size due to family division, climate change, yield loss due to abiotic and biotic stresses like pest, disease and weed, proliferation of non-genuine/illegal agro-chemicals etc (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2019). FAO estimates that a total annual loss of 20 to 40 percent of global crop production due to pests. Each year, plant diseases cost the global economy around $220 billion, and invasive insects around US$70 billion. While in India, yield loss to crops is estimated as 26, 20, 6 and 8% by insects, plant pathogens, rodents and others, respectively with an annual loss of Rs. 2,25,000 crores annually. Traditionally, ITKs have been practiced by farmers to control pests based on three categories viz., (a) cultural practices, physical, mechanical methods and use of botanicals. Later, IPM has been implemented in various crops to curb such losses caused by biotic stresses. Although cultural, mechanical and biological control strategies are in practice, insecticide application has been the most widely used tactics to reduce such losses to achieve quick control and particularly in case of outbreaks/upsurges. In India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). First generation insecticides such as sulphur, arsenic, calcium arsenate, copper acetoarsenite, hydrogen cyanide, lead were introduced during 1950’s which are simple, persistent, usually very toxic chemicals used in large scale which harm almost everything they come into contact with. Later second generation insecticide molecules like DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids have been introduced with few advantages over first generation molecules. Subsequently, insect growth regulators (IGRs) that mimic insect growth hormones preventing natural young insect moulting which are less harmful to mammals have been introduced. Then, during past decades, newer insecticide molecules have been introduced which are target specific, relatively safe to non-target organisms and low residual activity. In terms of pesticide production and consumption, India is the fourth largest user of pesticides in the world (FAOSTAT, 2017). India is one of the lowest consumer i.e. 0.5 kg/ha (0.06 mt) of pesticides in the world as compared to China (13.06/ha), Japan (11.85 kg/ha), Brazil (4.57 kg/ha) etc. The United Nations has declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). The main aim is to raise global awareness on how protecting plant health can help end hunger, reduce poverty, protect the environment, and boost economic development. FAO estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. This leaves millions of people without enough food to eat and seriously damages agriculture - the primary source of income for rural poor communities. .

Introduction

India has progressed well on food production from 51 million tonnes (mt) in 1947, 286 mt in 2018-2019 owing to the largest contribution from wheat and rice (about 213 mt). But simultaneously our population has also grown to about 135 billion in 2018. Therefore, the impact of higher production is not realized in absolute terms. Indian agriculture has come a long way since independence achieving food security in major crops, declining rate of rural poverty, rise in agricultural incomes and nutrition levels have gone up. Higher production has also been recorded in sugar, cotton, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, milk, fisheries and poultry. All this has made us a proud with achieving self-sufficiency in food security. However, on the socio-economic front, the picture does not become rosy as we have a lower strength of socio-economic development indicators even among developing countries. Still the reports of under nourishment, hunger and poverty rings the bell. However, the importance of agriculture cannot be negated because it provides sustenance to mankind, food and employment to all. Considering the emerging challenges of climate change impacting agricultural productivity and increasing variability, poor investment in research, skill development of farmers, post-harvest losses etc. New strategies and innovations in agriculture, particularly on the development of climate resilient varieties with high productivity and better nutritive quality are called for, which has to be led by structural reforms and infrastructural augmentation.

Introduction

The natural economic movement of a country goes from agrarian economy which is the primary sector to an industrial economy (secondary sector) and then only to the tertiary sector i.e., service economy. But due to various socio-economic factors, India has jumped from an agrarian economy to a service economy in the past and had a low growth in secondary sector.

Though primary sector is vital, there is a natural limit on how much can be extracted from this. The country is witnessing a peak in food grains production (285.21 million tonnes) nonetheless rupees 92,000 crores worth food grains are wasted annually (MOFPI annual report 2018-19). Hence, with an increasing population, decreasing arable land (52.6%), irrigation water resources and with present level of climate change scenario, food processing should be considered as a need to enhance the profitability and sustainability of agriculture in the country (Swaminathan and Bhavani, 2013). Thus, effective post-harvest management is one of the strategies for envisaging an evergreen revolution along with increasing yields. A well-developed food processing industry increases farm gate prices reduce wastages, ensure value addition, promote crop diversification, generate employment opportunities as well as export earnings.

Abstract
 
Technological advancement, increased urbanization, awareness and interest of consumer for variety products have given a great challenge to the food sector to develop inexpensive foods that are nutritionally superior and acceptable to the intended consumers. Keeping this objective in view, we have made an attempt to develop technology for variety products from wheat and corn and suitability of available varieties judged. With the emerging trends of food market towards fast foods, there are vast prospects for efficient utilization of cereals by exploring varieties products. A steamed bread (a Chinese traditional product) and Tortilla and corn chips (Mexican snacks) were developed. Steamed bread is defined as the product resulting from cooking or steaming fermented dough. Recipe and method for its preparation was standardized. Nutritionally rich steamed bread can be prepared by supplementing 10% level of chickpea and defatted soybean flour. Corn snacks have become a prime target of some consumer advocates and nutritionists who have referred them as a source of ‘empty calories’. But reality is that these snacks provide instant energy, as they are rich storehouse of nutrients. Process and recipe for the preparation of Tortilla and corn chips from Indian maize were standardized. The quality and acceptability of these snacks were worked out and found that these products were highly acceptable. Indian consumers have versatile taste, so these products will be readily accepted in Indian market. 

Data-centric artificial intelligence has transformed medical imaging, clinical prediction and electronic health-record analysis, but purely data-driven models face limitations involving generalization, bias, privacy and interpretability. This chapter examines the transition toward knowledge-aware and hybrid healthcare systems that combine machine learning with clinical knowledge, ontologies and knowledge graphs. It discusses explainable AI, clinical reasoning and the integration of structured knowledge into intelligent decision support. Applications include acute-care support, precision medicine, genomic oncology and population-health management. Ethical issues, regulatory compliance, fairness and privacy-preserving technologies are also considered. Future directions include quantum computing, large language models, multimodal integration and equity-focused healthcare-system development.

The most oxidizable form of nitrogen is nitrate nitrogen (NO3 -N), which is found in minimal amounts in surface waters but can reach considerable concentrations in some aquifers. An essential plant nutrient, nitrate also contributes to eutrophication in receiving water bodies.
Principle
Nitrate reacts with phenol disulphonic acid and produces a nitro-derivative which in alkaline solution develops yellow colour due to rearrangement of its structure. The yellow colour follows Beer’s law and is proportional to the concentration of nitrate present in the sample. Ultraviolet (UV) technique measures the absorbance of nitrate at 220 nm, which is suitable for screening uncontaminated water (low in organic matter). A second measurement made at 275 nm, may be used to correct the nitrate value (because 275 nm is not absorbed by nitrate, but absorbed by other matter). The nitrate calibration curve follows Beer’s law up to 11mg NO3 -N /L.
Reagents
1. Stock nitrate solution (1ml=100 µg NO3 -N): Dry potassium nitrate (KNO3) in an oven at 105 oC for 24 h. Take 360.9 mg potassium nitrate and dissolve in distilled water and dilute to 500 ml. Preserve it with adding 1 ml of chloroform in per 500 ml stock nitrate solution. This solution will stable for at least 6 months.
2. Intermediate nitrate solution (1 ml = 10µg NO3 -N): Take 100 ml of stock nitrate solution and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water. This solution can be preserve by adding 2 ml of chloroform per 1000 ml. This Intermediate nitrate solution will stable for at least 6 months.
3. Hydrochloric acid (HCL) solution, 1N: Take 83 ml of hydrochloric acid and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water

Nitrite (NO2-) is formed in waters by oxidation of ammonia compounds (by aerobic nitrifying bacteria, e.g. Nitrosomonas) or by reduction of nitrate (by facultative anaerobic denitrifying bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas). Such oxidation and reduction may occur in wastewater treatment plants, water distribution system, and natural waters. As an intermediate stage in nitrogen cycle, it is unstable. Very high nitrite levels are usually associated with waters having unsatisfactory microbiological activity.
Principle (Colorimetric method)
When nitrite (NO2 -) as nitrous acid (HNO2) mixes with sulfanilamide in an acidic environment (pH 2-2.5), a diazonium salt is created. This salt then combines with N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NED dihydrochloride) to make a vivid pinkish red azo-dye. The amount of nitrite in the sample directly correlates with the colour that is created. At 543 nm, the colour follows Beer’s law up to 180 µg/L with a 1 cm light path. By diluting a sample, a higher nitrite concentration can be determined. Sulfanilamide + HNO2 + HCl ? Diazonium salt + H2O.
Diazonium salt + NED-dihydrochloride ? Red colouredazo dye

12.1 Introduction-Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a chemical element which has the symbol N and atomic number 7. Elemental nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.1% by volume of Earth’s atmosphere. Nitrogen is a constituent element of all living tissues and amino acids. Many industrial important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, and cyanides are made up of nitrogen.

12.1.1 History

Nitrogen (Latin nitrogenium, where nitrum (from Greek nitron) means “native soda”and genes means “forming”) is formally considered to have been discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air. That there is a fraction of air that did not support combustion is well known to the late 18th century.

Argon was discovered when it is noticed that nitrogen from air is not identical to nitrogen from chemical reactions. Compounds of nitrogen were known in the Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids is known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest industrial and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds involved uses in the form of saltpeter (sodium- or potassium nitrate), notably in gunpowder, and much later, as fertilizer, and later still, as a chemical feedstock.

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.