eChapters

In this chapter we will look at the Expert system which can guide and assist an individual once it is provided with the enough Knowledge to do so. Here we will discuss about expert system and its architecture with proper steps of making an expert system in any field by several tools which are available to do so. For expert systems the most important is Knowledge Engineering which is the collection of Knowledge from an expert and Engineering it in such a form that a machine could understand it.

Introduction

One of the pioneering fields of AI study is Expert Systems (ES). It is proposed by researchers in the computer science department of Stanford University. An expert system is a computer system which emulates a human expert’s decision-making skills. Expert systems are developed by reasoning through information structures, representing laws, rather than through traditional procedural code, in order to overcome complex problems.

Expert Programs use professional expertise systematically to address human expert problems. An expert is an individual with experience in a specific field. The expert has expertise or special credentials which most people do not learn or care about. An expert can solve or solve problems more effectively than people can solve. Expert System actually emulates all these qualities of expert and solve the problem in a better way and fast.

Today, Expert System (ES) is used in the fields of finance, research, engineering, technology, medicine and many others where there is a well-defined problem area. The fundamental principle is that an expert method should also define the steps to illustrate why a problem can be solved. Unless an individual can justify his reasoning for Expert System.

Introduction

Agriculture has played an important role in the global economy in recent years. The further growth of the population is leading to a gradual decrease in the area of the agricultural land and further growing stresses on the farm system. Agricultural food production methods are rising in demand for successful and healthy. Innovative sensoring and motive technologies and advanced information and communications systems and Artificial Intelligence must supplement conventional agricultural management methods to speed up farm productivity growth more accurately, thereby promoting the production of high-quality and high-performance agriculture. Computer vision monitoring systems have become valuable tools in farm operations over the past decades, and their use has increased significantly.

What is Computer Vision?

Computer vision can be characterized as a field of AI for extracting information from digital images. The type of data obtained from an image may be different from recognition, navigational space measurements or applications of increased reality.

The applications of computer vision can also be described. Computer vision builds algorithms that recognize and use the quality of pictures for other purposes.

Deep learning emerged as a serious contender in the field from a 10-year explosive computational development. Deep learning is therefore a special form of machine learning, the algorithms of which are based on the structure and function of the human brain.

Machine learning VS Deep learning

Deep learning is arguably the most efficient form of machine learning. This is so important because they know the best way to solve the problem and how to fix everything. The following is a description of deep learning and machine Learning:

As we know there are different branches of artificial Intelligence and machine Learning of one of them which has become a most advance and widely used branch of artificial Intelligence in every field of this generation whether it may be either electronics, civil, mechanics, Bioengineering, medical or agriculture etc., In this chapter we will study about machine learning and its types with the most common algorithms of machine learning which are being mostly used in different scenarios and their implementation using python language has been discussed in the implementation part of this book. Here we will also see where machine learning can be used.

i. Introduction

Machine learning is a subset of Artificial Intelligence and one of the most important part of artificial Intelligence. It is a field of Computer science which is totally differs from traditional computational approaches. In traditional approaches, a set of instruction is explicitly provided to the algorithm to solve any problem. Whereas in Machine Learning is a domain of an AI which uses a statistical analysis and can enables a system to always learn from its data without any external inputs in order to give an essential output. Due to this machine learning makes computers in advance to make model which provide decision based on input data.

Machine Learning involves a lot of algorithms which usually based on their requirements and functionalities to use where and when. To make a machine learning model we always require the data on which model can be made. Machine learning uses the algorithm which continuously learns from the data available as training data. A machine learning model is generated after the training of algorithm from the data. After the training completes, when trained model is provided with other real-life data then you can get an essential outcome. For example, in figure 3.1 Machine learning Model we use a predictive algorithm and make a model by providing it with some data, and later on we can receive prediction’s based on real data as input.

As we have seen how artificial Intelligence can be useful in agriculture but the nest question always come in mind is that from where and how we can start to learn and what are the model of learning an artificial Intelligence. As Artificial Intelligence is a huge part of Computer Science which means we need an language as medium to perform it and we always prefer Python for that which is very dynamic and easy to learn. In this chapter we will learn about python basics so that in further implementation of artificial Intelligence it will be helpful to us.

I. Introduction

Python is a remarkable language that can claim to be easy and strong. You will be amazed to see how simple it is not to focus on the language you are programming, but on solving the problem. Guido van Rossum was the creator of the Python language which is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s flying Circus”.

Python is formally introduced as:

“Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing, together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.”

The artificial intelligence (AI) world is quickly growing as it reaches several different industries. You currently will see AI used for many different purposes from agriculture to automotive; with the passage of time you will see even more of it. Agriculture is one of the most important branches of the IT industry. Agriculture is an important industry and is a big part of our economy’s base. In terms of annual sales, the agricultural industry contributes to our economy almost 17%.AI is becoming a technical advancement that boost and protects crop yield, as climate change and populations rise. Here in this chapter basics of Artificial Intelligence have been discussed how it can be related to agriculture.

1. Introduction

Artificial Intelligence has become most prominent in current generation. Every field is utilizing Artificial Intelligence for their better results and which also result in saving a lot of time. As Artificial intelligence is boosting different sectors to increase the productivity and efficiency and its utilization across different sectors like in the field of CIVIL Artificial Intelligence can be used to analyze the structures of buildings, dams etc., and Artificial Intelligence solutions are assisting in so many ways to overcome the traditional challenges in every field.

I. What is Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is one of the most prominent field of Computer Science Engineering which attempts to redefine the tasks which are carried out by humans in their daily life with better results and maximum accuracy. Artificial Intelligence is actually meant to ease the work of human where the word artificial states the work done without any human interference and intelligence states the capabilities like human brain to perform tasks. The field artificial Intelligence has given so many definitions from time to time which can be typically stated as

10.1 Introduction

Biomass fuels are a potential source of renewable energy. One of the major barriers to their widespread use is that biomass has a lower energy content than traditional fossils fuels, which means that more fuel is required to get the same amount of energy. When combined — low energy content with low density -the volume of biomass handled increases enormously. Compaction or densification is one way to increase the energy density and overcome handling difficulties.

Densification means compaction of loose material or to increase density of loose biomass so that its volumetric efficiency can be increased. Densification essentially involves two parts; the compaction under pressure of loose material to reduce its volume and to agglomerate the material so that the product remains in the compressed state. The resulting solid may be a briquette, a pellet and a cube. It will be briquettes if roughly, it has a diameter greater than 30 mm. Smaller sizes are normally termed pellets though the distinction is arbitrary. The process of producing pellets is also different from the typical briquetting processes. The densified product can be developed in the cubical shapes as well.

If the material is compacted with low to moderate pressure (0.2-5 MPa), then the space between particles is reduced. Further, increasing the pressure will, at a certain stage particular to each material, collapse the cell walls of the cellulose constituent, thus approaching the physical, or dry mass and more, density of the material. The pressure required to achieve such high densities are typically 100 MPa plus. This process of compaction is entirely depending on to the pressure exerted on the material and its physical characteristics including its moisture content.

9.1 Introduction

The rapid growth of industrialization and population significantly affect on the demand of ethanol as an alternate fuel. Generally, conventional crops like sugarcane and corn become unable to meet the demand of bioethanol, due to their primary role in food and feed. Therefore, lignocellulosic biomass from agriculture waste is attractive precursor for bioethanol production. Biomass is renewable organic material, abundant and cost effective. Ethanol production from agriculture waste has been projected an economically attractive option for industrial sector. However, sugar and starch derived ethanol have a more theoretical yield as compared to lignocelluloses, theses sources are insufficient for bioethanol production. The major agricultural wastes including rice straw, corn straw, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse etc. can subsequently used for ethanol production. Rice straw has a highest worldwide potential for bioethanol production (205 giga liter) followed by wheat straw (104 giga liter), corn straw (58.6 giga liter), and finally for sugarcane bagasse (51.3 giga liter)¹.

A bio fuels is environmentally friendly options for power generation. Most of the fossil fuels are biological in nature. These are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give up the same amount when burnt. The bio fuels are therefore considered to be “CO₂ neutral”, not adding to the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. The type of bio fuel used will depend on a number of factor, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally.

India import 70% of the oil it uses, and the country has been hard by the increasing price of oil, uncertainty and environmental hazards that are concerned with the consumption of fossil fuels. In this context, bio fuels constitute a suitable alternative source of energy for India. There are two examples of bio fuels are Ethanol and Bio diesel (Renewable Diesel)

Ethanol can be made from biomass material containing sugar, starches, or cellulose (starch and cellulose are complex from of sugar)

8.1 Introduction

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from exhaust emissions and global warming have generated an intense international interest in developing alternative non-petroleum fuels for engines. The use of vegetable oil in internal combustion engines is not a recent innovation. Rudolf Diesel (18581913), creator of the diesel cycle engines, used peanut vegetable oil to demonstrate its invention in Paris in 1900. In 1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils as engine fuel may seem negligible today. Nevertheless, such oils may become, in the passing years, as important as oil and coal tar presently.” Nowadays, it is known that oil is a finite resource and that its price tends to increase exponentially, as its reserves have being decreasing¹.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to accelerate the development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich in coal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4 % of the world’s reserve). India, like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percent of primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largely responsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercial energy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth².

7.1 Introduction

Biomass gasification is age old technology originated in 1800 century for lighting and cooking purposes (Sansaniwal et al., 2017). Biomass typically contents biopolymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in addition to the presence of average composition of C₆H₁₀O₅ which depends upon physical characteristics of biomass¹. Oxygen is required for combustion of every fuel. For complete combustion of biomass stoichiometric air to fuel ratio required varies from 6:1 to 6.5:1 with CO₂ and H₂O as end product.

Biomass gasification is an efficient and environmentally friendly way to produce energy². Gasification process is nothing but it is a conversion of solid fuel into gaseous fuel for wide applications. This whole process completed at elevated temperature range of 800-1300 ^oC with series of chemical reaction that is why it come under thermo chemical conversion³. Thermo chemical processes are most commonly employed for converting biomass into higher heating value fuels⁴. Major thermal conversion route is include direct combustion to provide heat, liquid fuel and other elements to generate process heat for thermal and electricity generation is summaries in Fig. 7.1.

6.1 Introduction

Torrefaction is a thermophilic process of biomass conversion into a solid, friable, homogenous coal-like material, which has better fuel characteristics than the original biomass. Torrefaction involves the heating of biomass material in the absence of air at 250 to 300°C temperature. Torrefaction produces high-grade hydrophobic nature solid biofuels from various streams of woody biomass or agro residues.Torrefied biomass has high energy density then the original biomass which make torrefied biomass as renewable alternate source for power generation in coal power plant. Torrefied biomass being hydrophobic in nature can be stored easily for longer duration with negligible biological degradation. At 250-300°C temperature volatilization has been taking place and around 30% mass of the biomass is reduced as compared to original untorrefied biomass with net energy loss of approximately around 10%.The end product is a predictable, homogeneous, hydrophobic, high value solid biofuel with far higher energy density and calorific value than the original biomass feedstock. During the torrefaction process a combustible gas is released, which can also utilised to provide heat to the process. The process diagram of torrefaction process is shown in Fig. 6.1.

5.1 Introduction

Today, energy distribution and environmental issues have developed into international threats. Demand for alternative fuels increases every day due to rapid population growth, rising living standards, and economical sustainability. With its massive population, India has become the fourth largest energy consumer country in the world after the United States, China, and Russia. Because most nations use fossil fuels to fulfill their energy demands, they create negative impacts on the environment including raising global temperatures, pollution, acid rain, and other effects. As such, the quest for alternative fuels derived from renewable resources has captured significant attention throughout the world¹. Biomass as a renewable energy sources is an important asset for achieving economic development is due to the availability of biomass at a low cost, a good conversion efficiency, the addition of jobs, and an increase in the biodiversity^2,3. Typically, biomass is composed of cellulose (40-50%), hemicelluloses (25-35%), and lignin (15-30%). Large amount of resources for biomass are available such as woody biomass, crop residues and their by-products, food processing waste, municipal solid waste, aquatic plant etc.

In the present context, pyrolysis process has been received a remarkable identity as a potential method for the conversion of any organic biomass into valuable energy rich products due to its simple in operation and also required a reasonable cost for conversion process. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of any organic material at a specific temperature in absence of air/oxygen; the process ends with three resulting products, namely liquid (bio-oil), solid (biochar), and syngases⁴. Recently, biooil produced through pyrolysis process and further it up grading has been attracted a significant attention due to its major use as biofuel and as a precursor material for making chemicals⁵. The pyrolysis process also classified in three different types as per its operating conditions; slow, fast and flash pyrolysis.

4.1 Introduction

Biomass is referred to as an indirect source of solar energy and considered a source of stored chemical energy. Biomass is renewable organic material derived from plants and animals serving as sources of energy. Biomass produced from agricultural sector is big challenges for all over the world due to its improver disposal. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring adequate global food supplies represent two of the last decade’s mostdifficult challenges.Although global food production has benefitted from chemical fertilizers, environmental problems have emerged as a result of their use. Additionally, overuse of fertilizers can result in hardened soil, decreased soil fertility, polluted air and water, and the release of greenhouse gases. There is an urgent need to find an alternative to chemical fertilizers that, ideally, can be sourced in abundant amounts, promotes global food production, enhances CO₂ capture , and does not affect soil health or damage the environment¹. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is crucial to maintain adequate levels of organic matter in the soil to preserve its physical, chemical, and biological integrity. Biochar, a pyrogenic black carbon, may play an important role in improving soil health, resulting in higher crop yield and absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Biochar is the most auspicious straw management measures and have highest carbon abatement and economic profit².

Biochar is produced by heating biomass at high temperatures (300 – 600 °C) in a closed reactor containing no to partial levels of air. Under these conditions, biomass undergoes thermo-chemical conversion into biochar. Because of its numerous potentials uses in agriculture, energy, and the environment, much attention has been given to biochar in both political and academic areas. Biochar can be used in a variety of applications such as energy production, agriculture, carbon sequestration, waste water treatment, and bio-refinery; additionally, biochar provides an alternative strategy for managing organic waste. These advantages have renewed the interest of agricultural researchers in producing biochar from bio-residues and using the product as a soil amendment.

3.1 Introduction

Nature has a provision for destroying and disposing off wastes and dead plants and animals. This decay or decomposition is carried out by tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. Making of farm-yard manure (FYM) and compost is also through decomposition of organic matter (OM). When a heap of vegetable or animal waste and weeds etc., die or decompose at the bottom of backwater or shallow lagoons, bubbles can be noticed rising to the surface of water. Sometimes these bubbles burn with dancing flame at dusk. This phenomenon has puzzled man for a long time. It was only during the past hundred years that Scientists unlocked this secret as the decomposition process. The gas thus produced was and is still called “Marsh Gas.” The technology of harnessing this gas under artificially created conditions is known as Biogas Technology.

2.1 Introduction

Biomass store solar energy in the chemical form and it is most precious and versatile resources on earth. Biomass, unlike fossil fuels, is a renewable energy resource that is available where the climatic conditions are favorable for plant growth and production¹. The term biomass is used for all organic materials which are combustible in nature, mainly plant and animal origin present in land and aquatic environments. Biomass is considered carbon neutral, because the amount of carbon it can release is equivalent to the amount it absorbed during its life time. There is no net increase of carbon to the environment in the long term when combusting the lignocellulosic materials. Therefore, we can say that biomass is a renewable source of energy and can play vital role in responding to concerns over the protection of the environment and the security of energy supply^2,3.

Biomass energy accounts for about 15% of the world’s primary energy consumption and about 38% of the primary energy consumption in developing countries⁴. Furthermore, biomass often accounts for more than 90% of the total rural energy supplies in developing countries⁵. It is the main source to meet out domestic energy in developing countries⁶. The efficient use of fuel wood is much more eco-friendly than the use of efficient and conventional fuels like kerosene and liquefy petroleum gas (LPG). LPG emits 15 times more CO₂ per kg than wood, and kerosene emits nearly 10 times as much. CO₂ is the prominent candidate for global. It is commonly assumed that biomass fuel cycles based on renewable in nature and greenhouse-gas (GHG) neutral because the combusted carbon in the form of CO₂ is soon taken up by re-growing vegetation⁷.

1.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 636kcal

It indicates that the storage of 636 kcal is associated with the transfer of 72 gm carbon into organic matter. Biomass can be directly utilized as fuel or can be converted through different routes into useful forms of fuel. In fact, biomass is a source of five useful agents, which start with ‘F’ like food, fodder, fuel, fiber and fertilizer. Further, biomass has many advantages like.

(1) It is widely available

(2) Its technology for production and conversion is well understood.

(3) It is suitable for small or large applications

(4) Its production and utilisation requires only low light intensity and low temperature (5 to 35°C)

(5) It incorporates advantage of storage and transportation

(6) Comparatively, it is associated with low or negligible pollution.

The Indian Society for Protected Cultivation (ISPC) has organized a National Seminar on ‘Advances in Protected Cultivation’ at the NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi, on 21 March 2013, with an objective of collection and collation of scientific advances made in protected cultivation in India and dissemination of these among policy-planners, farmers, students, scientists, industry and other stakeholders. In spite of the fact that protected cultivation is in its state of infancy in the country in terms of scientific engagements, more than 120 delegates from distant parts of the country registered for the seminar besides good number of policy-planners, recognized names in agriculture and higher officials from industry particularly corporate associate life members of the society.

In the inaugural session, Dr Brahma Singh, President, ISPC and Chairman, Organizing Committee welcomed the Chief Guest Padama Bhushan, Dr R S Paroda, formerly Secretary and Director-General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi and Chairman Haryana Kisan Ayog, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar ; Guests of Honour Dr M M Pandey, Deputy Director-General (Agricultural Engineering), ICAR and Dr H S Gupta, Director, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, other dignitaries on and off the dais, delegates, press and media. He also highlighted that this seminar intended to review the advances made in protected cultivation in India with a purpose to accelerate the same. He emphasized that protected cultivation offers opportunities to earn more from the limited land, water and other resources. It also enables production of quality products which fetch more prices and pride, besides being a potential practice for provisioning disease-free quality planting material for horticultural crops.

Global demand for cut flowers is increasing steadily at around 10 per cent per annum. The share of India in this flourishing trade estimate at over US$ 40 billion per annum is negligible at 0.4 per cent. Floriculture include cut flowers, pot plants, cut foliage, seeds, bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried flowers or leaves. At international cut flower trade, flowers such as rose, carnation, Chrysanthemum, gerberas, gladiolus, gypsophilla, liatris, nerine, orchids, anthurium, tulips and lilies are preferred. Roses, gerberas and carnation are grown in greenhouses. The open field crops are Chrysanthemum, roses, gaillardia, lily, marigold, aster, tuberose etc. In India, floriculture is emerging as an important economic activity, earning foreign exchange. It has become a potential farm income enterprise. The domestic markets for high-quality flowers have been growing at 10- 20 per cent per year for the last few years. India’s flower business is estimated to be worth $ 400 million at retail, and about $ 100 million in international trade. Flower exports are about $ 30 million, constituting mainly of roses and dried flowers. Both Central and State Governments have been more than proactive and have made large investments in this industry in assisting production and marketing.

A large variety of floricultural crops can be produced in protected environment as economic cash crops for the benefit of farmers. Problems associated with floriculture in hills are small, scattered land holdings and sparsely located population. There is a lack of irrigation facilities due to scarce availability of water resources; widespread natural vagaries like drought, hail storms, frost etc. There is a serious gaps in application of advanced floricultural technologies for improving quality and productivity; high pressure on land use for different purposes like cereal crop production, fodder production, etc. due to low per capita land availability; difficulty in technology dissemination due to difficult terrain, hostile climate, poor communication facilities and sparsely located population. Consuming markets within the state are very less which result in dependence upon distant markets of the county. There is a high post-harvest losses due to lack of modern post-harvest management system; very high temperature differentials in production areas and consumer markets; perishable nature of flowers, resulting in high post-harvest losses during transportation; and distant location of production areas from main roads. High cost of marketing, lack of organised system of marketing, lack of bargaining power with individual growers due to small production levels; inadequate availability of market intelligence to farmers resulting in imbalances in distribution of produce in different markets.

Fusarium wilt of carnation caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.spp dianthi causes severe yield losses under protected cultivation. For the management of Fusarium wilt, 27 isolates of Bacillus strains were isolated from the rhizosphere of different crops including carnation. Among various species of Bacillus, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BSC7) was identified as a most virulent antagonistic bacterial isolate. Studies on antagonism under Environmentally Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM), depicted the presence of rod shaped bacterial cells with biofilm formation at 44847x. Detection for the presence of antibiotic biosynthetic genes reflected the presence of surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin genes. The 24 isolates of Bacillus spp. showed positive reaction for surfactin gene. Nineteen isolates were amplified for Iturin A gene except BS5, BS9, BSC1, BSC2, BSC11, BSD1 and BSD2. Strains of B. subtilis BS1, BS2, BS5, BS6 and BS8 expressed Bacillomycin D gene. The genomic DNA of strains BS1, BS2, BS4, BS6, BS7 BS8, BS11 and BS14 showed positive for Fengycin D gene. The isolate of B. subtilis BS2 showed positive reaction for four genes namely surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin.

In vitro screening of Bacillus, B. amyloliquefaciens (BSC7), P. aeruginosa (P1) and T. viride (TV1) showed highest inhibition against F.oxysporum f.sp.dianthi to an extent of 55.95, 55.29 and 81.61 per cent over the control respectively. The antifungal activity of antagonistic B. amyloliquefaciens BSC7 and T. viride TV1 against F.oxysporum f.sp. dianthi was confirmed under ESEM by observing disintegration, lysis and structural abnormalities of the hyphae of the pathogen at the zone of interaction.

H orticultural crops are most important ones incurring huge amount of pesticides in our country. The intensity of esticides on them is highest per unit area. However research on integrated pest management has not matched the progress and problems of plant protection at large and protected cultivation in particular. The USA, UK, Israel and Russia, pioneers in protected cultivation, are able to harvest productivity of up to 500 tonnes/ha of tomato and 200 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum, while in India up to 300 tonnes/ha of tomato and 100 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum are obtained, has compared to normal open field where their yield ranges from 40 to 60 and 10 to 20 tonnes/ha in India, respectively.

The sustainability of an agro-ecosystem is represented by its ability to maintain a given level of productivity over time and a given quantitative-qualitative level of environmental resources (Loucks, 1977). The greenhouse is also a form of agro-ecosystem, where unlike other agro-ecosystems, environment has been adapted to crop in order to maximize its productivity. The greenhouse system has to take maximum advantage of natural benefits offered by location in certain latitudes while minimizing the disadvantages (Castilla, 2002). Higher productivity under such protected cultivation is attainable mainly on account of reduced competition, healthy environment, better nutrient management, increased surface area and longer crop duration. However, ideal and stable environment with warm, humid and abundant food under protected conditions provides an excellent platform for pest development often more than open field crops, leading to severe pest situations in greenhouses, as revealed by extensive surveys.

The beginning of protected cultivation in the country has paved the way for export of horticultural produce, especially of flowers to earn valuable foreign exchange. The technology also became handy for quality production of flowers and F₁ hybrid seeds for domestic and export markets. In view of the globalization of international market and tremendous boost that is being given for export of flowers, there has been a spurt in the demand for protected cultivation technology. Low-cost polyhouses are quite popular in the North-East and in the northern plains, flowers are being raised in polyhouses either for capturing the early markets or to improve the quality of seedlings. Several commercial floriculture ventures are coming up in Uttrakhand, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to meet the demands of both domestic and export markets. There has been a substantial increase in area under protected cultivation of different flower crops. Though there were initial hitches owing to the cost sharing, farmers of some states have taken maximum benefits of the existing schemes and adopted the technology. Protected cultivation technology is one of the most useful technology inputs which hold promise to transform Indian floriculture and bring in the “Colour Revolution”.

Nearly, 40 countries are involved in protected cultivation of flower and vegetable crops. New production centers are being added constantly, mostly from developing nations. Today, majority of production is from developing countries like Zimbabwe, Morocco, Kenya, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Mexico, Singapore, Malaysia and India. In developed world, USA has an area of about 6,000 ha under greenhouses which are mostly used for floriculture. The Netherland is traditional exporter of greenhouse grown flowers all over the world. Israel, the largest exporter of cut flowers, has wide range of crops under greenhouses. About 1,000 ha area is under protected cultivation. Approximately, 98% of flowers are grown under open field cultivation and hardly 2% under the greenhouse cultivation.

Orchids are known for their exquisite beauty and trade in global floriculture business. The Netherlands is pioneer in roduction and ex ort of tem erate orchid while Thailand and Hawaii are the world leader in tropical orchids, respectively. Recently, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Sri Lanka are catching the international market. The orchid industry is expanding in terms of magnitude in some of the major orchid-producing nations. The global orchid market has passed $ 1 Billion mark in 2010. The leading orchid producing countries in 2010 are:

Country Production ($ million) Japan 280 USA 170 Taiwan 130 China 70 Brazil 60 UK 45 Thailand 35 Italy 30 New Zealand 20 Source: Orchid News The world consumption of orchids (potted plants) is valued more than $ 500 million (2000). The Dominican Republic, Costa Rica and India have recently begun to produce orchids for export. Commercial production of orchids has increased dramatically through the world in the past quarter century. The most common genera sold in Japan from 1993 to 2002 were Phalaenopsis (30%), Nobile type Dendrobium (20%), Oncidium (20%), Cymbidium (15%) and Cattleya (10%). The potted orchids sold through Dutch flower auctions increased from 50, 0000 to 18 million pots.

India is the second largest producer of vegetable crops with a total production of 146.5 million tonnes (2010-11). More than 60 vegetable crops belonging to, Solanacious, Cucurbitaceous, Leguminous, Cruciferous (cole crops), root crops and leafy vegetables are grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. The demand of vegetables will be 225 million tonnes by 2020 and 350 million tonnes by 2030. A larger quantity of quality seed of vegetable crops will be required in order to achieve the demands of vegetables. The limiting factors which reduce seed yield under open field condition are biotic and abiotic stresses, requirement of isolation distance and generation system of seed multiplication etc. These problems can be effectively managed when we go for seed production under protected structures.

Protected cultivation was introduced in India during 1985 but its progress is slow during the last 25 years due to lack of suitable varieties and hybrids for protected cultivation. Presently, area under polyhouse in India is 2000 ha, therefore, knowledge of polyhouse vegetable production technology of tomato and cucumber with intervention of drip irrigation and fertigation along with suitable varieties will be quite effective for enhancing their productivity. Therefore, it is imperative to develop hybrid seed and production of suitable varieties/hybrids at affordable prices to small and marginal farmers to achieve the targeted production potential of vegetable crops. Keeping in view some genotypes were isolated and pure line and hybrid breeding programme were adopted for improvement of these genotypes. After three years of multilocational testing at tarai, midhills and higher hills under polyhouse condition, four genotypes were identified and released. They are: Pant Parthenocarpic Cucumber 2 (1,755 q/ha) and Pant Parthenocarpic Cucumber 3 (1,605 q/ha) of cucumber and Pant Polyhouse Hybrid Tomato 1 (1,616 q/ha) with average fruit weight of 130-140 g and Pant Polyhouse Tomato 2 (1,291 q/ha) of tomato with single fruit weight 100-105 g. These genotypes were released by Uttarakhand State Variety Release Committee during May 2011 for commercial cultivation.

Kerala has a tropical humid weather characterised by high rainfall and humidity. The intense rainfall during June-September is a limiting factor for vegetable cultivation. High cost of labour, rapid urbanisation, small size of holdings and quality conscious consumers are some of the factors favouring protected cultivation in Kerala. Rain shelters and modified naturally-ventilated polyhouses are recommended structures for protected cultivation of vegetables. The important vegetables grown are cucumber, yard long bean, Capsicum, okra, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and leafy vegetables. The conventional saw-toothed structure has been modified to suit Kerala weather by making variation in height and improving the roof and side ventilation so that temperature variation inside the structure is only 1°C compared to the ambient. The Kerala Agricultural University has also developed an ad-hoc package for protected cultivation of vegetables, considering the soil and weather parameters and is providing necessary technical support to growers and extension officers. The technology for large-scale production of virus-free vegetable transplants in pro-trays has also been standardized. There is a growing demand for quality, disease-free seedlings and technology can be scaled up into a profitable agri-entreprenurial model. Open field precision farming through fertigation and mulching is profitable compared to conventional system of cultivation. Besides maximising water-and nutrient-use efficiency of the crop, this technology offers scope for mechanisation in vegetable cultivation saving human labour requirement by almost 50%. Rain shelters are useful for year-round production of vegetables in homestead for small growers.

Floriculture industry comprises of cultivation and trade of cut and loose flowers, potted plants, foliage and bedding plants, and dried flowers under open field as well as protected conditions. Globally, more than 145 countries are involved in cultivation of floricultural crops. Though the art of growing flowers is not new to India, protected cultivation is relatively new in India. Enormous genetic diversity, varied agroclimatic conditions, versatile human resources offer India a unique scope for diversification into new avenues which have not been explored to a greater extent. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value-added products also contribute a share in overall growth of floriculture industry.

Cut flower production is a growing business in most of the Asian countries. Technology for production is well-known and it has been utilized to the maximum in many countries. As a consequence, cut flowers are commercially produced in larger quantities in these countries, resulting in surplus quantity during normal periods of blooming. On the other hand, such prices are much higher during the periods of needs such as certain special occasions, or off-season.

In spite of considerable progress achieved during the last four decades in vegetable production in India, average productivity of vegetable crops is still low as compared to national and world level, indicating the scope to enhance their yield potential of quality produce. This is because of an appealing gap between potential yield and actual yield. In many vegetables, yield realized is even lesser than 50 % of potential yield. Sometime, farmers growing vegetable crops during main season do not get back their cost of cultivation. The prices of the same vegetable produce is very high during off-season. Several biotic and abiotic stresses are major factors responsible for low productivity and poor quality in different vegetable crops under open field cultivation, especifically in rainy and post-rainy seasons. The increasing demand of off-season high quality vegetables in various markets of big cities has called the attention of vegetable growers for diversification from traditional techniques of vegetable cultivation to modern systems of cultivation.

Protected cultivation of vegetable crops offers best choice for diversification. Production of crops under protected conditions has great potential in augmenting production and quality of vegetables, in main and off-season, maximizing water and nutrient-use efficiency under varied agroclimatic conditions. This technology has great potential especially in peri-urban areas, since it can be profitably used for growing high- value vegetables like tomato, cheery tomato, coloured Capsicum and parthenocarpic cucumbers, and healthy and virus-free seedlings in agri-entrepreneurial models.

Tomato varieties produced 50% in plastic house cover more than what they produce in open air (Diez et al., 1985). Nevertheless this production increase is not, by itself the reason for the use of protected cultivation which requires higher expenses. The key factor is the cost increase of final product obtained during off-season, which created an interesting margin in spite of high production costs. The effect of cost of seed in total cost is negligible, which permitted the use of hybrid seed. The new hybrids have brought about production increases which can be calculated to be over 50% more than what the greenhouse varieties produced with the cost of hybrid seed giving an effect on total production costs of only 6-7%. So that under these circumstances, production increase associated with hybrids is certainly very advantageous, apart form other benefits to be derived from hybrids.

R aising of healthy vegetable seedlings is most important aspect in vegetable production, because, up to a large extent it determines the productivity and profitability. Nursery raising under open field conditions suffers by a number of biotic and abiotic factors like, continuous rains, too low and too high temperatures, disease and insect-pest etc. For the early establishment in the field and to reduce the cost of production, vegetable seedlings are being raised in plug trays under controlled conditions round the year. Under this system, each transplant grows in an individual cell to reduce the competition among transplants and maintain the uniformity. Plug transplants establish better in field because roots are not damaged in pulling, transplants often result in better stands, and their growth can be controlled more easily through fertility and water management. With the passage of time, a lot of advances have been made in this direction and a number machines have been developed like media sterilizer, media mixer, plug trays filling, seed sowing machine, growth chamber etc. by which the raising of seedlings under controlled environment becomes easier and labour intensive.

The growth is insulated to allow for heating or cooling according to specific germination needs of the seed. This technique reduces fluctuations in temperature and moisture that can occur in an open house. The growth chambers are usually an insulated room in which temperature and relative humidity can be maintained at a precise level. Air circulation is important to ensure uniform temperature and humidity throughout the chamber. Grafting in vegetables is a recent practice to control soil-borne diseases and nematodes, for both field and greenhouse grown crops. In addition, grafted vegetables can produce higher yields and have improved tolerance to environmental stresses, soil salinity and low soil temperatures which is only possible under protected conditions. Thus under present scenario, raising of seedlings under controlled environment offers opportunity to go for commercial nursery with different machines.

In India, risk-prone, high altitude area constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Ladakh and Zanskar range (Jammu and Kashmir) and some parts of Lahoul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). Truly described as cold desert with low population density, Ladakh constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Jammu and Kashmir in India, comprising two districts, Leh and Kargil, bordering Pakistan and China (Fig. 1).

Greenhouse essentially functions based on solar energy to control environment for protecting cultivation from adverse condition. Computer simulation and mathematical modeling are important tools for determining the energy efficient design as well as predicting the overall system performance. The greenhouse climate may be used for crop drying, distillation, biogas plant heating, space conditioning, and aquaculture. Thus, any required configuration of greenhouse can be thermally modeled for predicting and optimizing the performance. The solar energy based greenhouse modeling are useful in evaluation of various applications like greenhouse heating, greenhouse cooling, greenhouse drying and aquaculture greenhouse. Greenhouse clubbed with ground air collector increase in plant and ambient temperature of 5–7°C during night in winter. Whereas, using evaporative cooling pad with greenhouse reduces the ambient temperature of 4–5°C during midday summer. A greenhouse can be very well used for large-scale crop drying, while not in use for cultivation. Some other applications such as covered crop drying and aquaculture are also discussed.

P rotected cultivation technology envisages immense promise, especially for high-value crops against various biotic and abiotic stresses. The climatic parameters stress conditions like unusually low and high temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind velocity comes under abiotic stresses. The present climate change scenario dealing with various biotic and abiotic stress conditions poses serious threat to agricultural production throughout the world. It is estimated that due to one-degree rise in temperature during rabi season, wheat production declines by 4-5 million tonnes in India. Similarly due to prevailing low temperature and frost like conditions, especially in Northern India, several million tonnes of horticultural crops like tomato, brinjal etc. got wasted every year. Protected cultivation technology deals with following types of protected structures :

Growing population, rapid urbanization and changing climate have created a global challenge to meet the food and nutritional needs. In India, rapid urbanization is not only taking place in larger cities, but satellite towns are competing for food, water, transportation and above all adding to pollution of the environment. As warming of the climate gathers alarming pace, posing a danger to agriculture, greenhouse cultivation is the only answer to save crops of flowers and vegetables. The yield under polyhouse cultivation can be achieved to the level of 5-8 times as compared to open field cultivation.

PROTECTED STRUCTURES

Protected cultivation is unique and specialized form of agriculture. Protected or greenhouse cultivation of vegetables is one of the means for clean vegetable production in peri-urban areas. The protected cultivation facilitates year-round production of high- quality produce with minimum labour and irrigation water, and almost wards off pest problem. In peri-urban regions, where climate prevents or does not favour year-round production of crops in open field, vegetable production can be taken up in protected environment. Use of protected structure for cultivation of crops as a commercial venture is a recent phenomenon, especially in the tropical areas.

Greenhouse refers to a structure which provide relatively better environment for plant growth. The goal is to create congenial temperature and relative humidity in desired range. The greenhouse covered with polythene sheet, also called as polyhouse, has polythene sheet (UV stabilized 200 micron LDPE sheet) as covering over a relatively rigid frame (made of GI pipes, angle iron, boomboo or wooden) which entraps the solar energy to increase the temperature and provide light for plant propagation. A normal greenhouse has four basic components: 1) frame made from rigid material like GI pipes, wood or bamboo; 2) glazing material, which is transparent to provide enough light for plant propagation; 3) climate control system, which may be natural ventilation or forced ventilation using fans with or without cooling pads, shading nets, pigment painting, etc. and 4) plant growing medium (soil or artificial media like cocopeats) with needful arrangement for supplying inputs (water, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.). The design of greenhouse involves structural design of frame with enough climate control mechanism. It mainly depends on shape, size, material of frame, local climatic conditions, wind pressure, and desired height from crop production point of view. Fabrication of greenhouse should be such that it provides enough structural stability with wind pressure and other factors, perfect joints, anchoring of polythene, and minimum hindrances in crop production practices.

Protected structures such as cloches, low tunnels, greenhouses, livestock housing, aquaculture facilities and phytotrones provide varying degrees of climate control for agricultural production. While cloches and low tunnels provide only passive modification of the growing environment, all other protected structures have the possibility of active and precise growing environment control.

GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY

Greenhouse technology permits the management of both biotic and abiotic stresses related to plant growth to maximize the productivity and quality. Resultantly, profitability per unit area per unit time increases by two to three orders of magnitude as compared to open field cultivation. Introduction of greenhouse technology in India for commercial production is only about three decades old, whereas it is more than two centuries old in USA, UK, Holland, France, Italy, etc.

A greenhouse is a framed or inflated structure covered with a transparent or translucent material where plant environment could be, at least partially controlled and which is large enough to permit a person to enter and carry out cultural operations. A greenhouse is called a glasshouse, when covered with glass, and plastic house when plastic is the glazing material. Materials of construction and cropping activities are also used to identify greenhouses. In addition to the growing facility, a commercial greenhouse complex has a head house, an input storage and a sales area. All these components are so arranged that unwanted movements of man and material are obviated.The greenhouse complex should have adequate wind breaks on the upstream side of the wind direction to provide protection against heavy winds.

Protected cultivation of vegetable crops refers to creation of favourable environmental conditions around vegetable plants, offsetting or minimizing the detrimental effects of prevailing or expected to prevail abiotic and biotic factors. In open fields, vegetables face several abiotic and biotic stresses, resulting in lower or poor or no yield. This condition is altered by using different protected structures for cultivation and/or nursery production. Vegetables which are transplanted using seedlings should be produced by raising seedlings under protected conditions. Protected conditions ensure production of healthy seedlings. The use of healthy seedlings ensures better and higher production of vegetables both under protected conditions and open field conditions. Nursery grown in nursery trays can be transported long distances and can wait till field is ready or human resources is available for transplanting. Structures are ideal for production of plug plants/transplants in different sizes of portable trays.

Since ancient times, agriculture is an outdoor or open field production of crops. Open field production is climate and weather dependent. In fact, growth and development of crops under a particular set of climate parameters defines geographical location, productivity and production period of different crops. The magnitude of impact of climate and weather on agricultural productivity and quality of produce is appreciated by farmers and the scientific community, including horticulturists. Abiotic and biotic factors govern crop production potential and quality of products. Among the major constraints in production of horticultural crops are temperature (hot or cold), sunlight duration and quality, water deficiencies or excesses, atmospheric moisture (relative humidity), weeds, deficiency of nutrients, heavy winds, carbon dioxide and host of diseases and insect pests. There are ecological optima for obtaining production potential of each of the crops. Deviation from these conditions results in yield losses partially and sometimes totally. However, near optimal climatic conditions could be created by controlling the climate with the help of greenhouse using

The article is the Inaugural address delivered by Dr. R.S. Paroda at Indian Society for Protected Cultivation (ISPC-registered in March 2012), New Delhi on 21 March 2013 in a seminar ‘‘Advances on Protected Cultivation’’ at NASC, Complex, Pusa, New Delhi different protected structures/methods/devices and such cultivation under controlled environmental conditions is termed as as protected cultivation.

• Spray Angle — The angle subtended at the final orifice by the edges of the spray pattern.
• Variation in discharge rate between first and last observation shall not be more than 5 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency requirement for roller vane type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency of piston, plunger type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• If the droplet size is reduced from 2 mm to 1 mm, number of droplets produced will increase by 8 times from the same volume.

Measurement also forms a basic element of any control process. The measurement of discrepancy between the actual and desired performance of a system is central to any control process. Electronic instrumentation provides the solution to many and varied problems of measurement and control. It is often required to change or transduce a measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. The elements which changes/converts the physical variable in electrical signal are termed as sensors or transducers. For a measurement to be useful it must be reliable. That is where question of accuracy or uncertainty of a measurement arises. This may be dealt with clear understanding of measurand and measurement system.

For development of agricultural engineering machineries, materials and manufacturing techniques play a very important role. Functionality, efficacy, life span, economics and aesthetic of any machine or structure are affected severely by the material of fabrication process. The manufacturing processes discussed in this chapter also include the pretreatment to manufacturing and structural materials. Wood and some kind of ferrous alloys had been the choice of materials for fabrication of agricultural machines in past few centuries, whereas these materials along with mud, bamboo, some agricultural residues and some earthen materials were the materials of choice for agricultural structures. Engineering materials are available with wide range of properties and characteristics. There are many properties, which are inherent in the materials, and some of them can be changed during processing and manufacturing.

Energy is defined as the capacity of doing work and is necessary for survival. It is basic input to any society’s development and economic growth. Everything happens in the world is the expression of flow of energy from one form to other. There are different sources of energy, i.e., chemical, mechanical, fossil, nuclear and renewable energy.

The following products are obtained from refining of crude oil

Ergonomics (also known as Human Engineering, Human Factors or Human Ergology) is the scientific study of relationship between a person and his/her working environment. The term environment includes the tools, materials and method of work, ambient conditions and physical environment in which the work is carried out, and also the organizational factors. Ergonomics application can help in increasing the efficiency and productivity, reducing drudgery and occupational health problems, and enhancing safety of workers in various activities.

Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural implements and machines including trailers. Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active tools and stationary farm machinery through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley.

Power tiller is a prime mover in which the direction of travel and its control for field operation is performed by the operator walking behind it. It is also known as hand tractor or walking type tractor. The concept of power tiller came in the world in the year 1920. Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale. Power tiller was first introduced in India in the year 1963. Power tiller is a walking type tractor. The operator walks behind the power tiller, holding the two handles of power tiller in his own hands. Power tiller may be called a single axle walking type tractor, though a riding seat is provided in certain designs. In agricultural applications it is often required to transmit the mechanical power from its source to the point of application. The main sources of power for agricultural machines, i.e., the diesel engine for self-propelled machines and the electrical motor for many stationary machines are primarily rotary power and are transmitted by means of belts and chains. Tractor power is utilized by traction, power-take-off drives (PTO) by fluid power.

• A machine is a device which receives some sort of energy and does some work.
• A rigid link is one, which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
• A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
• A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies having no relative motion between them.
• A turning pair has a completely constrained motion.
• Cam and follower includes higher pair.
• The lower pairs are self-closed pair.

It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants.

Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total grain loss should not be more than 5 per cent, in which broken grain should be less than 2 per cent. Clean un-bruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life.

It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick up attachment. The main functions of a combine are: (i) Cutting the standing crops (ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit (iii) Threshing the crops (iv) Cleaning the grains from straw (v) collecting the grains in a container.

Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets. Sprayer is used for the following purpose.

• Application of herbicides to remove weeds.
• Application of fungicides to minimize fungus diseases.
• Application of insecticides to control insect pests.
• Application of micro nutrients on the plants.

Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the field. A perfect seeding gives a) Correct amount of seed per unit area. b) Correct depth at which seed is placed in the soil. c) Correct spacing between row-to-row and plant-to-plant. Seed drill is a machine for placing the seeds in a continuous flow in furrows at uniform rate and at controlled depth with or without the arrangement of covering them with soil. Planter is normally used for those seeds which are larger in size and cannot be used by usual seed drills. A planter consists of: (i) hopper (ii) feed metering device (iii) knock out arrangement (iv) cut-off mechanism (v) furrow opener and (vi) other accessories. A planter has seed hopper for each row.

It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable condition for crop production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into the soil.

Tillage operations following primary tillage which are performed to create proper soil tilth for seeding and planting are secondary tillage. These are lighter and finer operations, performed on the soil after primary tillage operations. Secondary tillage consists of conditioning the soil to meet the different tillage objectives of the farm. These operations consume less power per unit area compared to primary tillage operations. Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or bullock drawn implements.