eChapters

Introduction

For optimum use of harvested rain water in surface reservoir like farm ponds or tankas, small sized solar PV pumping systems with 1 hp AC and DC motor were experimentally tested at research farms of ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur (Fig. 16.1). Total suction head in both pumps was about 5 m. Among two installed pumps, the system with AC pump consisted of 1400 Wp (200 Wp × 7) whereas the DC pump consisted of PV array of 920 Wp (230Wp × 4). Each PV panel of AC solar pump was connected in series, which was further connected with an inverter to generate AC output of about 220-240 volt and 4-4.2 ampere. In case of DC solar pump, panels are connected in parallel to generate DC output of 40-50 volt and 15-20 ampere.

Filling converts freshly frozen ice cream into commercially marketable product formats while maintaining accurate portioning, appearance, hygiene, and structural quality. This chapter examines the major filling and forming systems used in industrial ice cream production. It covers cup, cone, moulded stick, extruded novelty, tub, and family-pack filling lines. The chapter explains equipment functions, filling principles, product handling, and operational considerations for different formats. Common filling defects and corrective measures are also discussed. Standard operating procedures for start-up, operation, and shutdown provide practical guidance for plant personnel. Effective filling operations are essential for achieving consistent weight, attractive presentation, packaging integrity, productivity, and efficient manufacturing performance.

A TTO needs a planned budget of five years to sustain it in the long term. This involves budgeting the infrastructure, manpower, research, and outreach programs. The budgetary needs of a TTO will be based on the size and scope of the TTO and the maturity of the parent institution it caters to. The initial years will be focused on capacity development, the appointment of experts, and the establishment of processes of intellectual property management. The mature TTO will generate income through the returns of the licensing agreements and the collaborative efforts with the industry. Nevertheless, external funding through grants and government schemes plays a vital part, particularly in the initial years. The planned budget ensures long-term stability and development of the TTO.
9.1 Budgetary heads
9.1.1 Operational expenditure
Operational expenditure refers to the ongoing costs incurred by a TTO to maintain its day-to-day operations. This includes the cost of maintaining the office, including rent, power and utility bills, computer and network infrastructure, patent management cost, and administration charges. The filing and legal charges also fall within this category. The overheads will be a heavy burden if not planned with finances properly. A TTO has to be provided with a properly planned operational budget that covers the daily operational expenses. The operational expenses help the office perform effectively, sustain the employees, and effectively manage IP. The operational expenses that the budget normally covers include:

Takes clean, washed and edible fish-50-100 g for each method of cooking. And cook the fish according to the methods given table and record the characteristics of cooked fish.

Flavour, colour, inclusions, ripples, and variegates play important roles in creating distinctive ice cream products and enhancing consumer appeal. This chapter examines different flavouring materials and colouring systems used in ice cream, together with chocolate, cocoa, fruits, nuts, cookies, sauces, and other inclusions. It explains the formulation and processing considerations associated with ripples, ribbons, variegates, and complex flavour systems. Proper ingredient compatibility, dosage, distribution, and processing are essential for maintaining product quality. The chapter also addresses common flavour defects and their possible causes. Together, these topics provide practical guidance for developing attractive, innovative, stable, and commercially successful flavoured ice cream products.

Flood-control economics compares the financial, social, and environmental costs of flood damage with the costs and benefits of alternative mitigation measures. Because complete protection is generally impractical, planners must identify an economically justified level of risk reduction. Evaluation considers construction, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, residual risk, avoided losses, project life, discount rates, and direct and indirect benefits. This chapter introduces economic assessment of flood-control projects and examines flood-damage estimation, depth-damage relationships, benefit-cost analysis, present value, and investment decision criteria. It also considers remote-sensing approaches for mapping inundation and assessing losses. The discussion supports the selection of measures that are technically feasible, socially acceptable, environmentally responsible, and economically efficient.

Flood-control measures aim to reduce the probability of inundation or limit its harmful consequences. Structural measures physically modify water flow or storage and include dams, reservoirs, levees, floodwalls, diversions, channel improvements, detention basins, and watershed-treatment structures. Non-structural measures reduce exposure and vulnerability through forecasting, warnings, zoning, insurance, preparedness, evacuation, public education, land-use control, and disaster-response planning. This chapter classifies and evaluates both groups of measures, explaining their purposes, benefits, limitations, and selection criteria. It emphasizes that no individual intervention provides complete protection. Effective flood-risk reduction normally requires an integrated combination of structures, sound watershed management, reliable information systems, institutional coordination, and community participation.

Flood diversion redirects part or all of an excessive flow away from a vulnerable river reach, settlement, or agricultural area. Water may be conveyed through diversion channels, floodways, canals, tunnels, spillways, or natural depressions and discharged into another river, reservoir, wetland, or safe storage area. A diversion scheme must have sufficient capacity and a dependable control structure while avoiding unacceptable flooding, erosion, sediment deposition, or environmental damage elsewhere. This chapter explains the purpose, principles, and methods of flood diversion. It covers site selection, diversion routes, hydraulic and structural components, design discharge, operational requirements, advantages, limitations, maintenance needs, and the role of diversions within integrated basin-level flood-control planning.

Flood estimation determines the probable magnitude and frequency of flood events for designing hydraulic structures and managing flood risk. Intense rainfall over a catchment generates excess water after interception, infiltration, evaporation, and depression storage have been satisfied. This runoff reaches the drainage system and may cause flooding when channel capacity is inadequate. Reliable estimates help engineers select suitable dimensions for dams, spillways, bridges, culverts, reservoirs, and other protective works. This chapter describes rainfall-based and streamflow-based estimation techniques, including the Rational and Cook’s methods, unit-hydrograph procedures, frequency distributions, Gumbel, log-normal and Log-Pearson Type III analyses, empirical formulae, flow-mass curves, and partial-duration series.

Hydrology examines the occurrence, circulation, distribution, and properties of water in the atmosphere and on Earth. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and groundwater movement. Rainfall first satisfies interception, depression storage, evaporation, and infiltration before excess water begins flowing across the surface and into channels. When runoff entering a river exceeds its conveyance capacity, flooding may occur. This chapter explains clouds, precipitation measurement, rain-gauge networks, rainfall consistency, infiltration, runoff mechanisms, hydrographs, unit hydrographs, empirical runoff models, and stage-discharge relationships. These concepts provide the scientific foundation required for analysing floods and designing appropriate control measures.

Flood management is a continuing process of assessing flood risk and coordinating prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and adaptation. Unlike flood control, which often emphasizes physical structures, integrated flood management accepts that floods cannot always be eliminated and seeks to balance their risks and beneficial functions. It protects life and property while considering river-basin development, environmental sustainability, social needs, and economic feasibility. This chapter explains flood-management concepts, objectives, purposes, and techniques. It discusses structural and non-structural actions, forecasting, watershed treatment, afforestation, rainwater harvesting, floodplain zoning, community preparedness, institutional responsibilities, interlinking proposals, and government programmes. Emphasis is placed on coordinated, basin-wide and risk-informed decision-making.

Flood routing predicts how a flood hydrograph changes as it passes through a river reach or reservoir. Storage, channel geometry, friction, inflow distribution, and outlet conditions generally reduce, delay, or otherwise modify the flood peak. Routing results help forecast downstream water levels, determine reservoir releases, design spillways and channels, issue warnings, and evaluate flood-control alternatives. This chapter introduces the continuity and storage principles underlying flood routing and distinguishes reservoir routing from channel routing. It discusses hydrologic and hydraulic approaches, including level-pool, Muskingum, and related techniques. Attention is also given to inflow and outflow hydrographs, routing coefficients, travel time, attenuation, data requirements, assumptions, calculations, and practical engineering applications.

9.1 Introduction

Flood water which is in the form of a hydrograph when passes down a river section undergoes several changes in its form. There may be some addition of water to the river section when the flood wave passes down the river section. There may be some diversion of water from the section. Thus, depending on the addition or abstraction of water to the incoming flood water, shape of the flood hydrograph in the downstream section may change. Sometimes channel storage and resistance to flow of water in the channel section also affects the shape of the flood hydrograph.

A flood occurs when water exceeds the carrying capacity of a river, stream, drain, gully, or another natural or artificial channel and spreads over adjoining land. Its severity depends on water volume, depth, velocity, duration, timing, and the vulnerability of affected communities. Prolonged inundation can severely damage crops, property, infrastructure, water supplies, and human and animal life. Night-time floods may be particularly dangerous because warnings and evacuation become difficult. This chapter introduces flood occurrence and mechanisms, India’s and the world’s flood history, flood-prone regions, flood types and causes, major consequences, and the responsibilities of Indian flood-control and forecasting agencies.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

Flooding

Flooding affects both above and below ground ecosystem processes in greenhouses. Below-ground changes may be less obvious, they are as important as the above-ground changes. Soil microorganisms are sensitive to disturbance, and shifts in soil microbial community structure are expected when anaerobic conditions develop from flooding. The useful aerobic microbes are destroyed by flooding. It takes time to built-up their population in the soil to benefit plants. Due to anaerobic condition created by flooding in greenhouse plant roots in soil are not able to breath, function and hence wilting of plants occurs. Flood irrigation in excess create flood like condition in greenhouses at time. Excess water in soils is a major factor affecting plant survival and functioning. In saturated soils, the supply of atmospheric oxygen into the soil is curtailed and various facultative and obligate anaerobic microorganisms use oxidized compounds as electron acceptors for respiration, thus converting them to reduced forms. The reduction and the associated processes influence plant survival, growth and functioning in wetlands. Flood irrigation should always be just wet the soil not flood inviting stagnation of water.

A chain of reactions is initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced soil redox potential conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological processes that have significant implications on plants growth. Physical processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential followed by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulphate, and changing soil pH

12.1 Meaning and Definition

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

1.1. Floral biology

1.1. 1. Types of inflorescence

Group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.