eChapters

ABSTRACT

Approximately 30 % of fruits and vegetables are getting wasted each year in country like India. Not only that, there is a huge loss of agro based commodity during industrial processing and will be considered as industry generated waste. Utilization of such unexplored nutrients from agro processing sectors for making a sustainable food system will be a healthy approach to bring food security and nutrition to all of us. With this aim the present work addresses the utilization of jackfruit seeds, an agro-waste, to value added products. Jackfruit seed flour has a great potential in new food formulation along with wheat flour. The 15% (w/w) blending of jackfruit seed flour with wheat flour could be used in bread and the substituted bread is protein and fibre enriched. This attempt in developing such bakery items with blended flours could address the scarcity problem of non-wheat producing countries. Present study also looks into the alternate source of starch from spice processing industries. The nutrient starch could be explored for isolation from a nonconventional source from turmeric processing sector. The isolated starch could also be modified to enhance some of its functional properties and may be utilized in preparing value added product with a better acceptability and nutrition.Thus, the isolation of nutrients and value-added products out of fruits and vegetables and spice-processing waste would be a stepping stone to an initiative to zero hunger.

Abstract

30 lines were selected from 864 germplasm lines for good biscuit making attributes on the basis of low protein content (<10.5%) and low sedimentation value (<40cc). These lines were further screened by actual baking test and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) test keeping the standard prescribed for biscuit making qualities viz., low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC and larger diameter with larger spread ratio of biscuit. AWRC had significant negative correlation with biscuit spread ratio. Positive significant correlation was found between biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. On the basis of above findings, it may be recommended that low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC may be used as criteria for better biscuit making i.e. increase biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. So wheat-breeding programme has opened up new opportunities for the end use quality product and wheat based food industry. Hence there is an urgent need for qualitative analysis of desired traits in wheat towards enhanced value addition and thereby an attempted has been made to identify suitable genotypes possessing good biscuit making attributes

Variable is any character or attribute of the given object/set of objects which varies from object to object or from one point of time to another point of time. For example height of individuals is a variable; it varies from person to person.  Kerlinger (1973) defined variable as a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.

Importance of variables: In previous sections, we discussed about formulating the research problem and development of research hypothesis. Variables are the building blocks of any scientific research problem and research hypothesis. When we consider a hypothesis to be relational hypothesis, we mean that it make claims about relationship between two or more variables. When we test hypothesis, as such we do not test the hypothesis, rather we test the significance of hypothesised relationship between two or more variables. Since variables play central role in observation, measurement and testing of relationship, it is of prime importance to understand the meaning of variables, different types and the way we define these variables.

12.1. Variety release

Superior cultivars are to be purified by breeder and tested for genuiness in 7 generations.

Then, they are forwarded to MLT after RYT, RRYT, PYT and CYT in respective research station.

Based on results of the MLT, strain is forwarded to Adaptive Research Trials (ART).

ABSTRACT

Microencapsulation is one of the latest technologies used in the food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industry where it is used for maintaining the stability of the food ingredients and slow release of the active food ingredients. For many decades the encapsulation technique was used in the pharmaceutical industries, but from last three decades it has been effectively used in the food industries showing enhanced results in flavour masking and retention of bio- active components present in the food. The production of the microcapsules can be achieved by the various process technologies. The process technologies have been reviewed in this paper such as spray drying, extrusion, spray chilling, emulsions, fluidized bed coating, freeze drying, molecular inclusion, crystallization, co-acervation etc. the encapsulation of food materials has shown a promising result in the newly growing food processing industries. Some of the recent developments in the microencapsulation viz. sweetener immobilization, controlled release and the carrier materials are also being presented in the reviewed paper.

Population expansion, climate change, diminished rainfall, and escalating food demand are adversely affecting agriculture, resulting in alterations to crop practices. Consequently, to enhance yields and obtain precise data, it is imperative to implement modern precision farming techniques and deploy diverse sensor technologies.
• In light of the current circumstances and their adverse effects on conventional farming methods, agriculture must be conducted more wisely, employing advanced and cutting-edge technologies. This is the sole method to deliver a solution and address the incessant and expanding demands of the global population.
• Precision agriculture sensors are highly effective in agriculture as they relay data that enables farmers to monitor, enhance their goods, and stay informed about changes in the field and ecosystem.
• Advanced agricultural sensors efficiently identify animals, detect estrus, and monitor health, so enabling the isolation and treatment of ill cows through the identification, detection, and tracking of herds.
• Farmers can now utilize smart sensors in agriculture to monitor their crops remotely, assess their efficacy, manage pest infestations, and promptly implement measures to safeguard their crops from environmental threats.
• A sensor is a device that detects and reacts to specific inputs such as light, movement, pressure, temperature, or humidity, converting them into representations or signals that can be interpreted by people for further analysis and processing.
• They are frequently utilized in many applications, ranging from motion detection in security systems to temperature measurement in HVAC systems. They are also utilized in commonplace items such as smartphones, automobiles, and appliances.

The curl of the vector A= xyi + yzj + zxk (i, j and k represents unit vectors along the three orthogonal axis) is

(A) xi + yj + zk         (B) – xi – yj – zk

(C) yi + zj + xk          (D) – yi - zj - xk

Vector data analysis is performed to convert raw input vector data to output that provides new and meaningful information which ultimately supports decision making and disclose hidden patterns. There are various techniques to analyse vector data like buffering, intersect, union, and so on. Some of the most commonly used techniques with their R-code examples are explained in this chapter.

First of all, you need to import all the packages which are required for performing this exercise. These packages include rgdal and sp for importing and re-projecting vector data as well as raster and rgeos for performing vector analysis operations.

Vector data consists of points, lines and polygons with x, y coordinates known as vertices representing the geographic location i.e. latitude and longitude. Vector data depicts the shape of the spatial feature. Points consist of single x, y locations. Examples of points are tower location, sampling location, etc. Lines represent 1 – dimensional features like roads, streams, etc., and are composed of many or at least two connected points or vertices. Polygons denote 2 – dimensional features like boundaries with three or more vertices that are connected and closed. The vector data are represented in the following figure (fig. 5.1).

Procedure: weigh vegetables 20 g (for each variation) Water: add sufficiently
1. Cook the vegetable in water in a pan according to the “cooking time” variations given in the table 1 and note down the color, texture and flavor changes takes place during cooking for each variation and record the observations

R aising of healthy vegetable seedlings is most important aspect in vegetable production, because, up to a large extent it determines the productivity and profitability. Nursery raising under open field conditions suffers by a number of biotic and abiotic factors like, continuous rains, too low and too high temperatures, disease and insect-pest etc. For the early establishment in the field and to reduce the cost of production, vegetable seedlings are being raised in plug trays under controlled conditions round the year. Under this system, each transplant grows in an individual cell to reduce the competition among transplants and maintain the uniformity. Plug transplants establish better in field because roots are not damaged in pulling, transplants often result in better stands, and their growth can be controlled more easily through fertility and water management. With the passage of time, a lot of advances have been made in this direction and a number machines have been developed like media sterilizer, media mixer, plug trays filling, seed sowing machine, growth chamber etc. by which the raising of seedlings under controlled environment becomes easier and labour intensive.

The growth is insulated to allow for heating or cooling according to specific germination needs of the seed. This technique reduces fluctuations in temperature and moisture that can occur in an open house. The growth chambers are usually an insulated room in which temperature and relative humidity can be maintained at a precise level. Air circulation is important to ensure uniform temperature and humidity throughout the chamber. Grafting in vegetables is a recent practice to control soil-borne diseases and nematodes, for both field and greenhouse grown crops. In addition, grafted vegetables can produce higher yields and have improved tolerance to environmental stresses, soil salinity and low soil temperatures which is only possible under protected conditions. Thus under present scenario, raising of seedlings under controlled environment offers opportunity to go for commercial nursery with different machines.

Q. 1 The question below consists of a pair of related words followed by four pairs of words. Select the pair that best expresses the relation in the original pair. 

Unemployed : Worker
(A) Fallow : land     (B) Unaware : sleeper
(C) Wit : jester        (D) Renovated : house

Vermicomposting is the process of turning organic debris into worm castings by earthworms.

Earthworms feed on decaying material, pass through alimentary canals and excreted as castings.

pH of the castings is 7 (neutral) and the castings are odourless.

Contain high amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium.

Contains 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 ½ times more calcium and rich in humus.

Improves aeration, porosity, structure, drainage, and moisture holding capacity.

3.1 Introduction

The world population will grow by another 2 billion people by 2025 and feeding them will be a big challenge. Rapid industrial development and fast urbanization, the arable lands are continuously shrinking. Many scientists and researchers reported that the Earth had lost a third of its arable lands over the last 40 years¹. In the current scenario, the most challenging task for agricultural sciences is to ensure for continuous and enough supply of food to growing human civilization. Presently, all available arable land on the earth are using extensive pesticides and fertilizers in various ways that are not sustainable as well as harmful to the environment.

There is an urgent need to think about sustainable farming options as arable land for farming is continuously reducing to fulfil the food material demand of growing population. Vertical farming can produce more food from fewer land and water resources. Though it takes out many of the risks inherent in outdoor crop production. With the control of light exposure, indoor temperature, relative humidity and watering levels, growers can grow food very efficiently. Vertical farming has the potential to produce food with less energy, less water, less waste and in less space than traditional methods. It also negates the need for harmful chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Developing and installing vertical farm in those areas where people need good quality healthy food, tackle the shortage of nutritive food material at a local level. Vertical farming can be defined as it is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers where controlled-environment agriculture practices usually incorporated with the aims to optimize plant growth. The soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics also incorporated in vertical farming as shown in Fig. 3.1. Vertical farming is a very old idea, and indigenous peoples used vertically layered growing techniques like the rice terraces of East Asia. The term vertical farming was coined by American geologist Gilbert Ellis Bailey in 1915. In 1999, Dickson Despommier, a professor at New York’s Columbia University, popularized the modern idea of vertical farming, building upon the idea together with his students.

The emergence of Large Language Models has enabled the development of virtual teaching assistants capable of providing students with continuous, interactive, and personalized academic support. This chapter examines the role of LLM-powered chatbots and intelligent tutors in modern education. Unlike conventional digital resources, AI teaching assistants can engage learners through natural-language dialogue, explain difficult concepts, provide examples, generate practice activities, offer hints, and deliver immediate feedback. They can support individualized learning pathways by adapting explanations and learning materials to student needs, performance, and pace. The chapter explores applications in tutoring, assessment, academic guidance, interactive textbooks, student support, and self-directed learning. AI assistants can also reduce routine teacher workload by supporting activities such as grading, question generation, content recommendation, and classroom analytics. However, challenges remain concerning hallucination, accuracy, privacy, algorithmic transparency, inclusivity, and the appropriate balance between automated assistance and human mentorship. Large-scale and long-term evidence is still needed, particularly in diverse and low-resource educational settings. The chapter therefore emphasizes human–AI collaborative instruction, educator training, ethical integration, and responsible deployment of intelligent teaching assistants.

Importance of virtual water in agriculture
Virtual water is with the meaning of the concept when water embedded in goods and services and is exchangeable from one country to a different. The country is under water-scarce; the water that’s ‘saved’ is often used towards other ends. Water-scarce countries (like Israel) discourage the export of relatively water-intensive crops (like orange, water melon) precisely to stop large quantities of water from being exported to different parts of the earth. In recent years, the concept of virtual water on trade has gained weight both within the scientific also as restricted by the political debate. The notion of the concept is ambiguous. It changes between an analytical, descriptive concept and a political induced strategy. As an analytical concept, virtual water trade represents an instrument that permits the identification and assessment of policy options not only within the scientific but also within the political discourse. As a politically induced strategy, the question of virtual water trade are often implemented during a sustainable way, whether the implementation are often managed during a social, economical, and ecological fashion, and that countries the concept offers a meaningful option. the info that underlie the concept of virtual water can readily be wont to construct water satellite accounts and brought into economic models of international trade like the Computable General Equilibrium of Global Trade Analysis Project such a model are frequently wont to study the economic implications of changes within the water system or water policy, also because the water resource implications of economic development and trade liberalization. The data pertaining to virtual water is product of GTAP.
Keywords: Virtual water; foodstuff and food; water content in different food materials; water deficit areas;

Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) refers to methods of cultivating crops in managed environments to optimize resources and increase productivity. CEA systems regulate both the aerial and root environments, ensuring that plants stay within their ideal growth conditions. One popular method within CEA is indoor hydroponic farming, where crops, including fruits and vegetables, are grown without soil.
CEA includes various levels of technology integration to achieve optimal
plant growth, including:
• Low-level Integration: Basic environmental control in open-field production, such as shading and irrigation systems.
• Passive Environmental Controls: Systems for soil-based crop production, such as covering materials and high tunnel structures. • Integrated Sensors and Active Control Systems: Used in greenhouse systems to regulate environmental factors and enhance sunlight.
• Full Indoor Production: The most advanced method, where technology is used to create an ideal environment for plants independent of external conditions.
HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
In hydroponic systems, plants are either grown with their roots in direct contact with liquid nutrient solutions (often supported by floating rafts or trays) or placed in containers with other types of soilless media like coconut coir, rockwool, or peat mixes. Irrigation delivers all necessary nutrients in these soilless systems. Advantages and Disadvantages
Hydroponic systems offer several benefits, including:
• Year-Round Production: Crops can be grown continuously, even during winter months.

12.1 Introduction

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are chemicals that evaporate easily at room temperature. The term “organic” indicates that the compounds contain carbon. VOC exposures are often associated with an odor while other times there is no odor. Both can be harmful. There are thousands of different VOCs produced and used in our daily lives.

8.1. Warehousing

8.1.1. Definitions

Defined as the assumption of responsibility for storage of goods.

Protector of national wealth, for the produce stored in warehouses is preserved and protected against rodents, insects and pests and against the ill effect of moisture and dampness.

Industrial waste can be solid, liquid, or gaseous in type and is generated by industrial activities throughout a manufacturing process. Depending on its nature, it can be hazardous or non-hazardous. It is important to note that hazardous wastes can be ignitable, toxic, reactive, corrosive, or radioactive and can pose a threat to the environment. Industrial waste includes, among other things, paints, concrete, paper goods, sandpaper, metals and chemical solvents. Most industries face a significant problem associated with the disposal of waste. Due to the significant expenses involved, it is not feasible to collect and treat all of the waste due to the sizeable volume of waste produced by numerous businesses. As a result, especially in developing nations, the majority of industrial wastes are illegally deposited on wastelands like deserted fields

5.1 Waste Treatment and Disposal

Source reduction and feeding the hungry are significant considerations for decreasing avoidable food waste. However, non-edible wastes like livestock manure, agricultural wastes, and unusable food wastes are also classified as organic wastes. The environment and general public’s health may be seriously endangered by improper treatment of these wastes. Wastes can contaminate surface and ground waterways by runoff or leaching if they contain pathogens, chemicals, antibiotics, and nutrients. The breakdown of organic waste also results in the production of methane. As is well known, methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that captures more heat into the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. It is possible to remove organic waste and turn it into biogas, a sustainable energy source that can be utilised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the likelihood of stream pollution. Further emission reductions are made possible by replacing fossil fuels with biogas, sometimes leading to carbon-negative systems.

3.1 Introduction

A Massive increase in population, urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in the quantity and composition of waste. The waste is increasing day by day and is estimated to reach up to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, according to the reports by World Bank. It becomes a necessity for every nation to fore look upon the waste management system for their respective countries. From the collection, segregation, transportation, disposal all have become an important criterion to deal with. Among the available disposal options; the easiest and environment friendly is “Recycling”. 

Introduction

More than 380 million urban population living in town and cities generates 62 million tones of municipal waste every year out of which 75% is recyclable but only 30% is recycled and reused whereas less than 15% of municipal solid waste is treated. Generally municipal authorities of the country dump the waste outside the city to keep the urban area clean. According to World Bank report, by the year 2025, waste generation will reach 377,000 tonnes per day in India (CPCB 2020). The waste generated in industrial and urban area of the country is tangible and concerning. This is the high time to address this issue with a great sensitivity and planning. Ragpickers works as the informal waste collection and recycling sector which plays an important role in waste management and leads to lesser waste to the landfills (Gupta et al., 1998).

Waste management is the process of treatment and disposal of solid, organic and hazardous waste. It can be categorized based on the source sector i) urban waste; ii) electrical waste iii) medical waste; iv) waste produced by disasters; v) agricultural waste vi) industrial waste etc. The type of waste has variable potential harms for human health, social implications, policies and the environment (FICCI, 2011). Agriculture itself is a big source of waste generated at different paths of food supply chain that occurs as follows:

4.1 Biomass Energy Resource

Among the various methods for producing electricity, biomass is one of the most common. This method uses animal waste, wood pellets, etc. to produce electricity. The use of biomass energy has proven beneficial over time and has the potential to be both reliable and consistent as an alternative energy source.

Organic matter is simply referred to as biomass. Or, to put it another way, biomass is anything living or ever living, including animal waste, crop waste, garden trash, etc. As a result, biomass renewable energy is the energy produced during the use of biomass. Biomass derives and stores its energy from the sun, which is absorbed by plants through a process known as photosynthesis. Plants contain chemical energy that is passed to animals and then eaten by people. Various plant and animal products, including sugarcane, corn crops, wood chips, and even dung, can be utilised. These substances, also referred to as feedstocks, are converted into a biomass fuel.

2.1. Definition

Land which is presently lying unused or which is not being used to its optimum potential due to some constraints

Background and Technology Intervention

Andhra Pradesh is India’s fourth largest state in terms of area and fifth in terms of population. Its capital Hyderabad is one of the largest and fastest growing cities in Southern India occupying 650 square kilometers along the bank of Musi River. History says that, the fifth sultan, Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah established Hyderabad on the banks of Musi River in 1591 to avoid the acute water shortages experienced at Golconda during his rule. Today, due to rapid urbanization and increased economic activities, the river has become a receptacle of untreated domestic and industrial waste dumping out of Hyderabad. It is estimated that nearly 350 MLD (Million Liters a Day) of polluted water and sewage originating from the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad flow into the river. Though this river water which is at the downstream of the city remains highly polluted and considered a major disaster in Hyderabad, it is a significant resource for semi-arid and peri-urban population where the cultivation of fodder grass, paddy and vegetables have contributed largely to the household food security.

Plants and any from of living organisms cannot live without water, since water is the most important constituent about 80 to 90% of most plant cell.

2.1 Role of water in crop and crop production

(A) Physiological importance

•The plant system itself contains about 90% of water

•Amount of water varies in different parts of plant as follows

•Apical portion of root and shoot >90%

•Stem, leaves and fruits - 70 - 90%

•Woods - 50 - 60%

•Matured parts - 15 - 20%

•Freshly harvested grains - 15 - 20%

Abstract

Pulses being nutritionally vital, is an important constituent of diet for a very large number of peoples. A part from being a relatively cheaper source of dietary protein, it is also an important source of calories, certain essential amino acid, minerals and vitamins. Post harvest scenario of pulse shows that 75 per cent of production was milled in pulses with as dehusked split i.e. dal. Traditionally green gram and black gram dal is dehulled manually after soaking in water. Present investigation was carried out to develop the wet type dehuller and study was carried out on water absorption characteristics of green gram and black gram. The result reveals that the dehulling efficiency of abrasion type mechanism was about 95 per cent and 92 per cent in case of shearing type mechanism. It has been observed that rate of water absorption was initially high and then gradually decreases i.e. 0.54 to 0.18 and 0.48 to 0.18 for black and green gram, respectively. 

    1.    Water activity (a_w) affects food chemistry and can be controlled by removal (dehydration or drying) or by chemically binding the water, reducing its activity. Water activity in foods ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 in fresh meats and vegetables to 0.20 in dried milk.

    2.    Water activity (a_w) may be defined in a number of ways, qualitatively, aw is a measure of unbound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions.

    3.    Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes, and chemical reactants encounter and is affected by at the micro environmental level in food materials.

    4.    Two foods with the same water content can have very different aw values depending upon the degree to which the water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.

    5.    The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

    6.    Water activity or aw is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour pressure of the solution compared with the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Under equilibrium conditions water activity equals:

A water budget quantitatively accounts for water entering, leaving and remaining within a defined agricultural or hydrological system. Comparable to a financial budget, it considers precipitation, irrigation, runoff, evapotranspiration, percolation and changes in storage. This chapter explains the climatic and soil-water budget, potential and actual evapotranspiration, water surplus, water deficit and moisture adequacy. It discusses how water-balance analysis supports irrigation scheduling, crop planning, drought assessment, rainwater harvesting and watershed management. Understanding the timing and magnitude of water availability helps farmers and planners select crops and management practices suited to local conditions. Water budgeting therefore provides a fundamental tool for climate-resilient and resource-efficient agriculture.

Water budgeting and its importance, methods of soil moisture estimation, evapo-transpiration and crop water requirement and effective rainfall Water budgeting and its importance, irrigation scheduling approaches
Water budgeting
Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.
Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.
Importance of water budgeting
Efficient utilization of available recourse (water) for bringing more area under irrigation:
1. To increase the productivity of a region / farm.
2. To increase cropping intensity of a region / farm
3. To tide over some dry-spells
4. To reduce excess irrigation and losses caused thereby
5. To avoid run off losses
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is defined as frequency with which water is to be applied based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil.
Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations & their frequency required to meet the crop water requirement.

Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.

Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.

5.1 Introduction

A farm pond that collects and harvests in-situ rainfall as well as runoff from the catchment area can be used for many purposes: the most important of which is the supply of water to crops as supplemental irrigation. It is no doubt a viable source for integrated farming system. In addition, the water of the pond can be used for domestic and to some extent for the industrial uses. It is also a good source for recreational use. Total water demand of the pond including irrigation to different crops in different seasons, domestic and other non agricultural uses are to be assessed. While estimating the crop water requirement and irrigation requirement, various crops to be grown in the service area of the pond, their water requirements, crop duration, extent of coverage and water management practices followed are to be taken into consideration. Multiplying the irrigation requirement with crop coverage area, volumetric irrigation water requirement of crop can be found out. Summation of irrigation requirement of all crops grown in service area of the pond, gives total irrigation demand of the pond.

Farm ponds are normally used for irrigation to crops as well as to meet the live stock water demand. Normally the large live stocks like horse, cattle require 20 thousand litres of water per head per year whereas the small live stocks like sheep, goat, pigs require 2 thousand litres of water per head per year. Adding the irrigation demand to the livestock demand, total water requirement of the pond is calculated. In addition to this, if the pond water is used for industrial, domestic and other sectoral purposes, then water used in all such sectors are to be added to irrigation and livestock demand to estimate the total water demand of the pond.

10.1. Introduction

Irrigation facilities are created by the Government at huge cost for supplying water to the farmers for raising crops to increase agricultural production. The major and medium irrigation projects are planned, constructed, managed, operated and maintained by the Irrigation Departments, wherein certain procedures and rules are evolved and followed to the delivery schedule of canals, frequency of supply and distribution of water to the farmers, and closing of canals. The creation of such facilities resulted in ushering the green revolution in the sixties and seventies in the production of food grains and also employment generation in the country, thereby improving the socio-economic condition of Indian farmers. However, optimized management of irrigation water is the key to the sustainable development of agriculture and livestock. Since management of water for irrigation is highly location-specific, depending upon agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, type of irrigation project and land use pattern, it differs from project to project and region to region in the country.

Land, water and weather are natural resources that are critical for survival. Modern agriculture requires precise information on various agro-climatic parameters like soil, crop, climate and water resources for formulating efficient agricultural planning. Out of these, water is considered most scarce input in agriculture because its availability is reducing drastically for agriculture as well as drinking purposes. Besides, declining water tables and deteriorating quality of water resources caused pollution and sewage and effluents have further multiplied the problems.

10.1 Introduction

Irrigation is an age old practice. It has been practiced for thousands of years. It is chiefly used to irrigate rice in wetter areas; especially in Asian countries and dry land crops including vegetables and fruits in dry land areas having low rainfall in all most all countries. Devices for irrigation water lifting range from age old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient pump. Unlike canal irrigation where water is fed to the fields through gravity system, water from the surface and sub-surface sources is lifted either mechanically by pump or manually by any indigenous lifting devices. Irrigation by lifting water from a lower level to a higher level is called as lift irrigation. Several types of indigenous water lifting devices are in vogue in India since ancient times. These are animal or/and manually operated ones, the animal operated ones being more efficient than the manually operated ones. The earliest water lifts were simple man-powered devices, many of which are still being used with modifications in different forms. With gradual improvement, principles of simple machines, like the liver, pulley, screw etc. were employed in smooth lifting of water from surface and sub-surface sources. The selection of a suitable water lifting device for a particular situation depends on the following factors:

(i) Characteristics of source of water and the lifting device

(ii) Amount of water to be lifted

(iii) Depth of water table

(iv) Type and amount of power available and

(v) Economic status of the farmers.

Q. 1 A submersible pump may be
(A) Single stage pump       (B) Multi stage pump
(C) Centrifugal pump         (D) Both (A) and (B)

26.1. What?

These devices are used to lift water to a height that allows access to water. Lifting devices can be used to lift groundwater, rainwater stored in an underground reservoir and river water. For agricultural use, water is lifted either from a borewell or open well to irrigate the crops. According to power sources, lifting of water can be accomplished either manually or by animal or electricity sources of power.

26.2. Human-powered devices

Man has a limited physical power output, which may be in the range of 0.08 to 0.1 hp. This power can be used to lift water from shallow depths for irrigation. These include swing basket, counterpoise lift, don, Archimedean screw and paddle wheel. However, nowadays these are not commonly used.

26.3. Animal-powered devices

Animal power is abundantly available in India. They are used to lift water, besides being put to use for other field operations and processing works. A pair of bullocks may develop approximately 0.80 horsepower. They can lift water from a depth of 30m or more. Of course, the rate of discharge will go down with increase in the lift. These include rope and bucket lift, self emptying bucket, two bucket lift, Persian wheel and chain pump.

16.1 Water logging

For optimum growth and yield of field crops, proper balance between soil air and soil moisture is quite essential. Except rice many of the cultivated plants cannot withstand excess water in the soil. The ideal condition is that moisture and air occupy the pore spaces in equal proportions. When the soil contains excess water than that can be accommodated in the pore spaces it is said the field is water logged.

Causes of water logging

1. Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to the belief that more water contributes better yield.

2. Improper selection of irrigation methods

3. Percolation and seepage from lands canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated places

4. Improper lay out and lack of outlets

5. Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation

6. Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer.

Abstract

In the emerging era of wide spread use of IT tools, up-to-date information on water resources is the key to support economic development, conserve the nature as well as to improve the quality of life. Due to rapid rise in population  and food demand, growing economy and improving living standards; the pressure on our water resources is increasing and it will become scarce in the coming decades if not managed at this stage in a integrated way. Water resources management requires a multi-disciplinary approach that combines a collection of technical tools and expertise along with stakeholders of diverse interests and priorities in planning and management and an operational water resources information system at national level is the first requirement.

When rocks and minerals under go weathering process large quantities of soluble salts are formed. In humid regions these salts are washed down to the ground water and to the sea. But in arid and semi arid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive irrigation and poor water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt accumulation. An accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavourable soil water-air relationship and effect the crop production.

The following are the main causes which leads to development of salty soils (salinity or alkalinity)

Increasing population, declining natural resources, changing climate and political stability are the major threat to our food, nutritional as well as environmental security. It is expected that India’s population will boom to 1.5 billion by 2030 and to feed them we need approximately 341mt food grain including 315 mt cereals and 26mt pulses) (Kumar et al., 2016).

The coastal agro ecosystem is very important among the different agro ecosystems of our country both economically and environmentally. It spans over a length of 8129 sq. km. covering 9 states and 2 Island ecosystems. Agriculture and allied activities constitute the single largest component of India’s economy, contributing nearly 27 per cent of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the year 1999-2000 (TERI, 2002). Agriculture exports accounts for 13 to 18 per cent of total annual exports of the country (MoF, 2002). However, given that 62 per cent of the cropped area is still dependent on rainfall (MoEF, 2002). Coastal agricultural region comprises of hinterland, which has a varied geometric and topographical features of mountains valley, coastal plains, riverine systems, climatic conditions, different soils and water bodies, vegetation ranging from rich tropical rain forests to coastal mangroves and a wide range of crops that are cultivated in this region (Table 1). The agro climatic conditions of the coastal zones are congenial for growing various field and horticultural crops.

Introduction

Indian agriculture was contributing 70% to total GDP of the country at pre-independent time, but it decreased drastically year by year and contributed 66.8% in 1960, 55.6% in 1994, 27.1% in 1997 and now a days, it reached only to 25% in 2001. With the advancement of civilization our population is increased, whereas, the cultivable lands is decreased side by side, thus, on an average income of agriculture is decreased.

Gujarat is the leading state to concern with the productivity, production and the area of the some crops like Groundnut, Castor, Cotton, etc. in India. The major part of the state is surrounded by sea coast border, which is 1600 km. Gujarat is popular for production of oilseed crops like groundnut, cotton ; horticultural crops like mango, chiku, coconut, banana, papaya, citrus; spices crops like chili, cumin, funnel etc.

1.0 Introduction

Population in dry lands of the world is increasing; more fresh water is required in order to meet the growing demands. To meet this challenging situation developing new technologies for identification of potential sites for rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an important step towards maximizing water availability in semi-arid areas.

Introduction
Surface irrigation is the distribution of water using open canals in which water flows by gravity. This type of irrigation, which includes flood irrigation, requires relatively flat fields and deep soils.
A good irrigation will ensure a uniform and homogenous distribution of water in small and regular doses. The status of moisture in the soil also aims at maintaining the relative humidity in a plot at a stable level, to limit the development of weeds and pathogens. Irrigation is also used to avoid the transmission of phyto-sanitary problems or the leaching of pesticides.
The volumes of water to apply depend on the climatic conditions, the frequencies of the applications, the soil type and the irrigation method. The choice must take into account the efficiency of each method, the water availability, the installation and running costs, the maintenance needs, the spatial requirements and whether it’s possible to work while the field is irrigated.
Water Management Practices of Different Crops Rice
Total water requirement is 1100-1250
The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water is ranges from 1100 to 1250 mm depending upon the agro climatic situation. Of

17.1 Rice

Rice culture at present dominates irrigated agriculture. About 64% of the irrigation water resources in Andhra Pradesh are used for cultivation of rice. An adequate water supply is one of the most important factors in rice production. In many parts of India including Andhra Pradesh rice plants suffer from either too much or too little water because of irregular rainfall and land topography.

Percolation losses in rice fields

Percolation losses are a function of the local soil and topographic conditions. Therefore, at any time the amount of rainfall or irrigation water entering the soil becomes greater than its water holding capacity, losses by downward movement of free water (vertical percolation) will occur. Percolation is often defined as the movement of water through saturated soils due to gravity, hydrostatic pressure or both.

Thus where the soil is heavy and the water table is close to the soil surface, percolation losses are low, about 1 – 2 mm/day. On the other hand, where the soil is light and the water table is deep, percolation losses may be high, about 8 – 15 mm/day, or more. About 50 to 60% of applied water to rice is lost by deep percolation. The percolation losses can be reduced by adopting following agronomic practices:

4.1. Introduction

Globally, rice is cultivated on about 165 million ha of land, which provides around 787 million tons of paddy annually (FAO, 2023). In Asia, 708 million tons of paddy is produced from nearly 143 million rice-cultivated areas. Rice crop is grown in a wide range of climates, varied soil types, and hydrological situations. Rice is the lone cereal crop that grows well in floods.

The rice habitat can be divided into four groups based on the hydrology of the rice field: irrigated lowland rice (79~80 million ha), rainfed lowland rice (54~55 million ha), upland rice (14~15 million ha), and flood-prone rice (11~12 million ha) (Table 4.1) (Bouman et al., 2006).

5.1. Introduction

Rice-fallows are a rainfed rice mono-crop production system, where only a single crop (rice) is grown and these lands remain without any crop for the rest of the period of the year (fallow). An estimate shows that rice-fallow areas extended over 22.3 M ha in South Asia, maximum in India ( 88.3%) followed by Bangladesh (8.7%), Nepal (1.4%), Sri Lanka (1.1%), Pakistan (0.5%), and Bhutan (0.02%) (Gumma et al., 2016). The eastern part of India accounts for ~ 84% (9.7 million ha) of the country’s total rice-fallow area (i.e. 11.7 million ha) (Ali et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2017), despite high rainfall during rainy / monsoon season. The reasons are that after the rainy season, irrigation facilities are lacking, very fast depletion of the soil residual moisture due to temperature rise, the poor economic condition of the farmers, and a lack of awareness or knowledge of available technologies. Additionally, delayed harvesting of long-duration rice (150-160 days) results in late sowing of winter crops, which, in turn, exacerbates the temperature and moisture stresses in winter crops (Kumar et al., 2018a; 2018b). Overall, the challenges of growing another crop in rice-fallow areas are the lack of irrigation facilities including declining groundwater levels, the dominance of the long-duration rice varieties cultivation, higher evaporative loss of the residual soil moisture, degradation of soil quality, and poor financial conditions of the farming community with diminishing profit. Recently, climate change with erratic rainfall and delayed monsoon arrival added more challenges for these areas in several places. Deficit soil moisture imposes stress on the crops and negatively affects the winter crops productivity in the rice-fallow system, and several times it results in complete crop failure (Singh et al., 2012; Ghosh et al., 2016).