eChapters

ABSTRACT

Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System play major role in the water planning of river basins. Varahanadhi is one of the 17 major river basins of Tamilnadu, bounded in North by Palar basin, East by Bay of Bengal and West & South by Ponnaiyar basin. It drains through Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram districts. There are three sub basins viz., Ongur, Nallavur and Varahanadhi sub basins. From Survey of India top sheets, Basin boundary, sub basin boundary maps were generated. Administrative map with district, block boundaries was prepared. GIS software - Arc view, was utilized for this purpose. By using ERDAS IMAGINE, Digital Image processing software, satellite image mosaic of Varahanadhi Basin, Geomorphology, Land use, Wasteland, Structural-Lineament maps were generated. IRS P 6 RESOURCESAT, LISS III and PAN data were used for the thematic map preparation. From the collateral data collected, the thematic maps on Geology, Soil, and annual north east, south west. summer, winter rainfall, irrigation system, pre monsoon and post monsoon groundwater levels, ground water quality were prepared using ARC GIS Software. Relief and Drainage map were also generated in GIS environment. The surface water potential was assessed by rainfall run off method for which geomorphology map interpreted by remote sensing and GIS was utilized. Based on geomorphology and land use maps, draft for irrigation was estimated. Geology, geomorphology, depth to bedrock, rainfall pattern, water level maps were used

to asses groundwater potential and draft. Sectoral demand on power, industry and domestic were made based on collected collateral data. Environmental Impact Assessment was assessed using land use maps and ground water quality maps interpreted from remote sensing data for years 1998 and 2004 were prepared and compared. Wasteland map was prepared to know the extent of wastelands and their types as per National Waste Land Board norms. Remedial measures to convert waste lands into productive lands were also suggested. By superimposing geomorphology and lineament maps upon the wastelands, sites suitable for groundwater development in the waste lands were identified. In the same way by using GIS overlay analysis developmental and action plan maps were also prepared with technical recommendations. By applying remote sensing and GIS techniques the basin water resources assessment, draft to meet out sectoral demands and balance of water available for future use can be decided. Varaganadhi basin is a surplus basin as per the study.

4.1 Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and/or the ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water. Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical processes. Although natural processes such as volcanic eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based activities (Figure 4.2). Water pollutants can move through different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them progresses through stages of the water cycle (Figure 4.1). Water residence time (the average time that a water molecule spends in a water reservoir) is very important to pollution problems because it affects pollution potential. Water in rivers has a relatively short residence time, so pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such as the ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence time, which can make groundwater pollution particularly problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much greater than the water residence time because a pollutant may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or absorbed onto sediment.

5.1 Introduction

The source of pollution are many and varied. The most critical are domestic sewage and industrial effluent discharging into rivers, lakes, ponds etc. Treatment facilities for domestic sewage in class 1 cities having population of more than 1,00,0000 and class 2 cities having population between 50,000 and 99,999 can process hardly 10% of the wastewater generated. Wastewater treatment facilities are difficult to quantify due to lack of continuous data. On an average, the treatment capacity in class 1 cities can handle only 60% of the wastewater collected and less than 15% of the total volume of wastewater generated.

The Indian industry has grown annually at an average rate of 5.5% during the last 50 years. Among different industrial sectors, water pollution is concentrated with in a few industrial sub-sectors mainly in the form of toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of the total pollution contributed by the industrial sub-sectors, 40% to 45% of the total pollutants can be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and nearly 40% of the total organic pollution to the food products industry alone. Food products and agro-based industries together contribute 65% to 70% of the total industrial wastewater in terms of organic load. Blair T Bower, consultant, the Urban Institute, USA, remarks: "… If substantial further growth of Asia’s cities cannot be avoided and if the environmental disasters that could be associated with that growth are to be prevented, there is only one alternative: urban environmental quality management must be substantially improved throughout the region".

The total quantity of water used by the domestic and industrial sectors is much less than that consumed for irrigation. However, the wastewater released from the above sectors has a great concentration of pollutants, and is discharged at specific disposal points. Thus, the wastewater generated from domestic and industrial projects causes much more water pollution as compared to any other source.

It is estimated that the world requires nearly 70 per cent increase in agriculture production to meet the demand for food by the year 2050 based on current trends in population growth it can be achieved either by increasing land under cultivation (which is not possible), increasing the availability of more water for agriculture and efficient utilisation of available land and water resources. The best available option is to increase in productivity of unit of land for unit water. However, the availability of water for agriculture production cannot be presumed to be same year after year as the major source of water is precipitation more known for its uncertainty due to change in weather patterns from season to season and year to year all over the world. The element of uncertainty is increasing since the beginning of the present century due to climate change under the present circumstance, the crop production is practiced -
• In Irrigated Areas
• In Rainfed Areas
• Under Conserved Moisture Condition Without Any Source Of Irrigation
For increasing crop production under irrigated condition, it is necessary to identify crops and varieties that can produce more yield per unit of water even when there is some decrease in availability of water through irrigation. Therefore, the concept of water production function is used for evaluation of water use efficiency of the crops.

16.1 Introduction

Producing more crops, livestock, fish and forest products per unit of water use is an essence of water productivity and is highly essential for both food and environmental security. A variety of options exist for improving the productivity of water in agriculture through breeding, better management practices and supporting policies and institutions. It is imperative to identify a range of means to enhance water productivity in agriculture, assess their potential and the consequences of their adoption. The production systems to be considered can vary from purely rainfed to irrigated, and from dry zones to semi-humid monsoonal areas.

The productivity of water used in agriculture has almost doubled during 1961 to 2001, It is mainly due to increases in crop yields. Irrigated rice yields doubled and rain-fed wheat yields rose by 160% in that period, with little variation in water consumption per kilo of output. Globally, FAO estimates that water needs for food per capita halved from about 6 m³/day to less than 3 m³/day during 1961 to 2001 which is a significant saving and an equally significant gain for other water users.

According to an estimate, a 1% increase in water productivity in food production enables to save about 24 lit/day of water per head of population, while a 10% increase would equal current domestic water consumption. Importance of saving water in agriculture can be realised from the above observation.

Aquaculture is the cultivation of fish, molluscs, crustaceans (shell fish) and aquatic plants in controlled conditions, provides an increasingly significant proportion of food production globally. The sector has represented the greatest growth of all food production systems in the last two decades and an estimated 10% yearly increase in output is likely to bring productivity to a predicted 47 million tonnes in the year 2010 (Pedini and Shehadeh, 1997). Significantly, the greatest contribution to total production and the greatest rate of uptake of aquaculture activity is in the developing world. More than 82% of the total global yield in 1999 was produced by developing countries (GESAMP, 2000) and growth rates between 1984 and 1995 were six times higher than that from developed countries (Rana, 1997; Tacon, 1996).

2.1 Historical Development

We have seen in Chapter 1 that modeling is about establishing cause effect relationship. Perhaps one of the earliest attempts in this direction is made as early as 1848 in Germany where it was tried to establish a relation between purity and pollution to the occurrence of certain biological organism. But as far as water quality modeling is concerned the first major breakthrough in this direction is the effort of Streetor and Phelps (1925) in oxygen sag curve. They developed model for estimating DO and BOD in Ohio River. The work of O’Conner (1962) for bacteria models are major milestone in pre-computer era modeling.

With the advent of computer during 1960s complicated kinetics and time variable simulation came into being. Most of the workers presented their efforts in terms of linear programming based water management models concerning waste discharge. Thomann(1963) has formulated linear programming based models for dissolved oxygen in an estuary. So a stage is set for study of eutrophication through modeling, but the problem is determination of values of various parameters in these equations.

During 1970s models expanded in terms of complexities mainly because of enhanced computational facilities. Two dimensional and dynamic framework has started replacing one dimensional steady state configurations. In the same year, Di Toro presented an analysis of the steady state two dimensional concentration distribution that results in the horizontal plane from the continuous discharge of a non-conservative substances (DO and BOD) into an infinite body of water.

5.1 Introduction

A reservoir that collects and harvests in-situ rainfall as well as runoff from the catchment area can be used for many purposes: the most important of which is the supply of water to crops as supplemental irrigation. The water of the reservoir can be used for domestic and industrial uses. It is also a good source for recreational use. Total water demand of the reservoir including irrigation to different crops in different seasons, domestic and other non agricultural uses are to be assessed. While estimating the crop water requirement and irrigation requirement, various crops to be grown in the service area of the reservoir, their water requirements, crop duration, extent of coverage and water management practices followed are to be taken into consideration. Multiplying the irrigation requirement with crop coverage area, volumetric irrigation water requirement of crop can be found out. Summation of irrigation requirement of all crops grown in service area of the reservoir gives total irrigation demand of the reservoir.

Small farm reservoirs are normally used for irrigation to crops as well as to meet the live stock water demand. Normally the large live stocks like horse, cattle require 20 thousand litres of water per head per year whereas the small live stocks like sheep, goat, pigs require 2 thousand litres of water per head per year. Adding the irrigation demand to the livestock demand, total water requirement of the reservoir is calculated. In addition to this, water used for industrial, domestic and other sectoral purposes are to be added to irrigation and livestock demand to estimate the total water demand of the reservoir.

4.1 Introduction

A reservoir that collects and harvests in-situ rainfall as well as runoff from the catchment area can be used for many purposes: the most important of which is the supply of water to crops as supplemental irrigation. The water of the reservoir can be used for domestic and industrial uses. It is also a good source for recreational use. Total water demand of the reservoir including irrigation to different crops in different seasons, domestic and other non-agricultural uses are to be assessed. While estimating the crop water requirement and irrigation requirement, various crops to be grown in the service area of the reservoir, their water requirements, crop duration, extent of coverage and water management practices followed are to be taken into consideration. Multiplying the irrigation requirement with crop coverage area, volumetric irrigation water requirement of crop can be found out. Summation of irrigation requirement of all crops grown in service area of the reservoir gives total irrigation demand of the reservoir.

4.2 Water and Irrigation Demand of Crops

Of the various demand of water from the reservoir, irrigation demand of crops grown in the command area of the reservoir is very important. Most of the crop water demand is met from rainfall. However, when the rainfall is deficient to meet the crop water demand, then the deficit is met from the stored water of the reservoir in the form of irrigation, more commonly called as supplemental irrigation. The irrigation to the crops is required mostly to meet the evapotranspiration requirement of the crop. Before discussing the water and irrigation demand/requirement of crops, it is essential to know some commonly used terms frequently used.

1.1. Status of irrigation in Tamil Nadu

Geographical area of 13 million hectares is ranked eleventh in size among the Indian states.

Net area sown is about 6 million hectares.

3 million hectares or 50% get irrigation facilities.

10.1 Land and Water Resource

India has got the world’s 2.45% area and 16.87% of population with only the 4% of available fresh water (Table 11.1). This indicates the necessity of development of water resources and optimal use of it. India at macro level does not have short of water. But the shortage of water is due if not properly managed by conservation and sector wise utilization.

The water resource potential of the country has been assessed by different agencies in different time (Table 11.1). It is observed that the latest estimate of 1869bcm (1993) are within the little variation of the estimates since 1954. The utilizable water resources of the country are assessed 1123bcm by CWC (1993) of which 690bcm from surface water and 433bcm from ground water sources. This 690bcm can be harnessed if matching storage structures are built. The surface water utilizable potential may increase by 220bcm if inter-basin transfer

Water Resources: Classifications of water: Groundwater, surface water and Virtual Water; Conjunctive use of water in agriculture; Water resources in different states and Stakeholders of water use.
Introduction
Despite fact that more than two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with water, currently, near about 450 million people in 29 countries are facing severe water shortage and at least 20 percent more water would be required to feed additional 3 billion populations by 2025. About 97.5 percent of ocean-sea water is not available due to its salinity and 2.49 percent is locked up in ice and only 0.01 percent is technologically available and economically accessible water either from surface or ground water sources for human uses. So water saving technologies developed so far is very pertinent to propagate amongst the users. Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining the environment and supporting life where the agriculture is the major user of water resource. Water is an indispensable for sustainable agricultural growth and development. Previously, rainfed agriculture was associated primarily with conservational land treatments to check soil erosion and land degradation.But in the areas of medium to heavy rainfall, there is ample scope of tapping excess rain water through suitable water harvesting structures constructed for this purpose for its subsequent uses as irrigation or to apply lifesaving irrigation to the crops which should also come under the purview of water management for crop production. Although there is a difference in the objectives of water management where there is abundant availability of water from continuous flow connected with perennial sources or lakes and rivers and that of from restricted or limited supply from collection of excess rain through water harvesting structures.The former is associated with to obtain as much as yield of crop per unit area under water application and later is associated with increasing productivityof crop per unit of water application even under rainwater recycling and its effective management for the purpose of irrigation. Hence, both the rainwater and irrigation water are considered to be equally important to context of

Introduction

Water is a precious natural resource vital, for sustaining all life on the earth. It is in a continuous circulatory movement - hydrologic cycle. It is not uniformly distributed in time and space. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. On a global scale, total quantity of water available is about 1600 million cubic km. The hydrological cycle moves enormous quantities of water about the globe. However, much of the world’s water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all water on earth is saline water. Out of remaining 2.5% fresh water, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica and Greenland, only about 0.26% flows in rivers, lakes and in the soils and shallow aquifers which can be readily used. Sustainable water management in India is fast becoming a necessity, with the looming crisis over water resources in the country threatening the security and livelihood of the population and the environment over the coming decades. Managing water resources, river catchments, and coastal zones are outstanding challenges of today and tomorrow’s. Global changes ask for a comprehensive scientific approach, an international multi-disciplinary orientation and require a new mind-set towards water and coastal management problems.

2.1. Introduction

Water plays a pivotal role in this earth system. The withdrawal of water for irrigation is about 70% of the global freshwater. Water use efficiency is less than 50% in many countries. It has been forecasted by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2015) that global water requirements will be increased by 50% by the year 2050 to meet the demands of agricultural water use. This is so because food demand will be higher for the growing human population. We have entered into an earth system where everything living has evolved and developed (Cosgrove and Loucks, 2015). There has been a new geological scenario, some say Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002; Williams et al., 2011). Consequently, freshwater will increasingly be a scarce and the costliest resource in the future, which needs to be managed properly.

Surface Water Resources

Surface water is a general term describing any water body which is found flowing or standing on the surface, such as streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and reservoirs. Surface water originates from various combinations of sources:

1. Direct precipitation - rainfall which falls directly in the surface water body;
2. Surface runoff - rainfall which has fallen onto the surrounding land and that flows directly over the surface into the water body;
3. Interflow - excess soil moisture which is constantly draining into water body; and
4. Water table discharge - where there is an aquifer below the water body and the water table is high enough, the water will discharge directly from the aquifer into the water body.

The quality and quantity of surface water depends on a combination of climate and geological factors. The recent pattern of rainfall, for example, is important in enclosed water bodies such as lakes and reservoirs where water is collected over a long period and stored. The water storage in streams and rivers is in a constant stage of movement and depend on the weather conditions.

4.1 Introduction

India is a land of many rivers, lakes, ponds, coastal, marines and mountains. Its geographical area of about 329 million hectare is crises crossed by a large number of small and medium, large rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have a greater significance in the history of Indian civilizations, development, religious and spiritual life. It may not be an exaggeration to say that the rivers are the heart and soul of the Indian civilizations

India is a union of States with a federal set up. Politically, the country is divided into 26 States and 7 Union Territories. A major part of India’s population of 869 millions (1991 census) is rural and agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers are the source of their life. India is a land of many religions, diversity of cultures and languages. The different regions of the country have different cultural, linguistic and other ethnic groups. The land and people present a vast panorama of diversity in unity. Physiographically, India may be divided into seven well-defined regions.

4.1 Soil Moisture Tension

Soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and shows the force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from soil. The tenacity is measured in terms of the potential energy of water in the soil measured, usually with respect to free water. It is usually expressed in atmospheres, the average air pressure at sea level. Other pressure units like cm of water or cm or mm of mercury are also often used (1 atmosphere = 1036 cm of water or 76.39 cm of mercury). It is also sometimes expressed in bars (1 bar = 106 dynes / cm² = 1023 cm of water column. 1 millibar = 1/1000- bar).

Soil moisture tension is brought about at the smaller dimensions by surface tension (capillarity) and at the higher dimensions by adhesion. Buckingham (1907) introduced the concept of ‘capillary potential’ to define the energy with which water is held by soil. This term, however, does not apply over the entire moisture range. In a wet soil, as long as there is a continuous column of water, it might be called ‘hydrostatic potential’, in the intermediate range the term ‘capillary potential’ is appropriate. In the dry range the term ‘hygroscopic potential’ would be suitable. However, the term ‘soil moisture potential’, ‘soil moisture suction’ and ‘soil moisture tension’ are often used synonymously to cover the entire range of moisture (Khonke, 1968).

4.1 Introduction

A farm pond is basically small scale water harvesting and water recycling structure. It harvests water mainly in the rainy season when there is abundant rainfall producing sufficient runoff and the harvested water may be used for single or multiple cropping. When there is deficient supply of water to the crops it may supplement as supplemental irrigation. The leftover water in the pond can be used for growing another crop in winter when there is no or less rainfall. Ij addition, the stored water in the pond can be used for domestic and other uses and rearing fish. Thus it serves as viable medium for integrated farming system in rainfed farming ecosystem. Before designing a pond in a given location, it is very important to estimate the total quantity of water supply to the pond. The two main sources of water supply to pond are (i) in situ rainfall and (ii) runoff (some times called as discharge) generated from the catchment and conveyed to the pond. Some times there is groundwater contribution to the pond when the pond is unlined and the underlying groundwater table with reference to the ground level is at lower elevation than the depth of water in the pond such that there is a hydraulic gradient in the direction of underlying groundwater level to the water level in the pond.

4.1. Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source to the field with minimum possible loss.

To identify the nature of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.

Evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of irrigation water.

13.1 Introduction

In agricultural lands, when the pores of the soil within the root zone of the crop get saturated with the subsoil water due to infiltration of high rainfall, excess irrigation or heavy seepage loss in the unlined canal systems, the air circulation within the soil pores get totally stopped. This phenomenon is called as waterlogging. In canal commands where there is continuous flow of water in the canals and canals are mostly unlined, there is heavy loss of seepage which raises the ground water table. This raising water table sometimes comes up to the ground surface which impedes surface drainage. By capillary action, under ground water rises to the crop root zone and submerges the roots of the crops for most of the time. This situation is called as waterlogging which creates salinisation and alkalinisation problems affecting the plant growth.

The height to which soil water rises above the water table by capillary action is called as capillary fringe. Generally, the height of the capillary fringe varies from 1 to 1.5 m. When the water table comes to 1.5 m below the surface of the soil, the land is said to be waterlogged. At times, due to poor drainage conditions, surface water cannot be freely drained out. The stagnate water in these low lying areas also causes waterlogging which enhances the weed growth consequently affecting the crop yield.

1.1. Watershed development

Refers to the conservation, regeneration and judicious utilization of all the resources viz., land, water, vegetation, animal and human within a particular watershed in integrated manner.

Water drainage area on earth’s surface from which runoff, due to precipitation, flows into a single to a larger stream, a river, a lake or the ocean.

1.2. Concept of watershed management

Planning and design of soil and water conservation structures such as bunds, waterways, overflow structures, water harvesting structure.

A watershed is an area that provides pathway to the surface or sub surface water flow to a given drainage system. The watershed is a hydrological unit. The area of watershed may vary from few hectares to thousands of square kilometres. The watershed development involves effective management of land and vegetation in order to conserve and improve the quantity of water. The watershed development is a comprehensive and sustainable solution to water conservation (Fig.13.1).
The watershed development has several advantages. It helps in
• Conservation, upgradation and utilization of natural resources particularly land, water and vegetation
• Minimise the inequalities between rainfed and irrigated areas
• Promoting cost effective adoptable simple technologies
• Supply water for domestic ,agricultural and industrial use
• Poverty alleviation and employment generation
• Reducing chemical pollution
• Adopting flood control measures by constructing water storage or impounding structures

Agriculture is world’s single largest employer and probably the most weather dependent of all human activities.  Climate and its variability have been and continue to be, the principal source of fluctuations in global food production. Throughout history, extreames of heat and cold, droughts and floods, and various form of violent weather have wretched havoc on the global agricultural production. With the unprecedented increase in population over past few decades, clearly the mankind faces undertaking task to ensure food and nutritional security for all, considering reduced per capita land, reduced availability of water, depleting biodiversity and need to preserve ecology and environment. In India, of the total geographical area of 328 m ha, about 175 m ha (53 % of total) are categorized as degraded land, of which 150 m ha are subjected to serious water and wind erosion (Singh et al. 1981). Crops are sown in about 180 m ha annually. Since it seems very much impossible to bring more area under cultivation we need to achieve greater efficiency in the natural resources use while conserving the environment by placing greater emphasis on understanding and exploiting climatic resources for the benefits of agriculture.

Weather and climate have great influence on farm animal production. The environment in which an animal lives is referred to as its habitat. A habitat includes both biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components of the animals’ environment. Abiotic components of an animal’s environment include temperature, humidity, oxygen, wind, soil composition, day length and elevation. Knowledge of how potential environmental stressors (ambient temperature, humidity, thermal radiation, air speed, etc.) can directly and adversely affect animal performance, health and wellbeing is also required for a successful animal farming. The indirect consequences of weather include their impact on feed quality and availability.

Birds and mammals are warmblooded (endotherms or homeotherms), possessing a thermoregulatory system that maintains a stable body temperature and uniform internal environment (homeostasis) by converting food energy into heat. All metabolic processes generate substantial heat and much of this is retained within the body of homeotherms by insulating layers of fat, feathers or fur. Dairy cattle, like other warmblooded animals, function most efficiently in environments where they can maintain their body temperature at around 38° C. Tissue and cellular metabolism and the underlying biochemical reactions that sustain life and productive functions need body temperature to be maintained within very narrow limits. Relatively small increases in body temperature result in the breakdown of body protein and a significant depression in production.

Climate change, particularly global warming has complex impacts on domestic animal production system affecting feed supply, challenging thermoregulatory mechanism resulting thermal stress, emerging new diseases due to change in epidemiology of diseases and causing many other indirect impacts. So, climate change will have farreaching consequences for dairy and meat production, especially in vulnerable parts of the world where it is vital for nutrition and livelihoods. Due to poor availability of good quality feed and fodders in India, animals are generally maintained on poor quality grasses available in the pastures or are stallfed, mainly on crop residues. India is already deficit in feed and fodder. These shortages would be further aggravated by the adverse effects of global warming on fodder crop production.

Many diseases, nematodes, insects and weeds affect crop production, causing severe yield loss. Weather is the most important factor that determines the geographical distribution of these crop pests. The local weather patterns have a significant impact on the abundance of diseases and insect pests in the crops. The severity of disease and pest development depends on the combination of weather conditions during the growing season and is variable from season to season. The weather conditions include temperature (both the maximum and the minimum), light, rain, humidity, dew, cloudiness, sunshine, wind, air currents, evaporation, snow and atmospheric pressure. However, among these weather parameters, temperature and humidity play the major roles in infection of crops due to insect pests and diseases.

Weather conditions strongly influence crop growth, irrigation requirements, pest and disease development, and final agricultural productivity. This chapter examines the application of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning for agricultural weather forecasting and predictive analytics. It explains how historical meteorological records, satellite observations, and IoT sensor data can be integrated to develop more accurate forecasting systems. Techniques such as Long Short-Term Memory networks, attention mechanisms, ensemble learning, and probabilistic forecasting support improved prediction of complex weather patterns. The chapter connects forecasting with agricultural decision-support systems for irrigation, pest management, and crop planning. It also considers data heterogeneity, missing observations, uncertainty, and future developments such as hybrid models, federated learning, and digital twins.

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the past and current state of the atmosphere on a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve on that place. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation is important to agriculture.

Agricultural production is highly dependent on weather, climate and water availability, and is adversely affected by weather and climate related disasters. In many developing countries where rainfed agriculture is the norm, a good rainy season means good crop production, enhanced food security and a healthy economy. Failure of rains and occurrence of natural disasters such as floods and droughts can lead to crop failures, food insecurity, famine, loss of property and life, mass migration, and negative national economic growth (Sivakumar, 2006).

Farming in many parts of the world, especially in the arid and semiarid regions is risky, because climate is highly variable. In some developing countries as much as 80% of the variability in agricultural production is due to the variability in weather conditions. This production variability in agriculture has immediate and important macroeconomic impacts. A timely seasonal forecast of favourable conditions could permit farmers to adjust cropping patterns and input use in order to benefit fully from these conditions. Also, a timely forecast could give the marketing system and downstream users, such as the food processing industry, time to prepare for a bountiful harvest (Arndt et al., 2000). It is important to remember that under rainfed conditions, even a less reliable, but earlier forecast may be more valuable than an accurate but late forecast (Mjelde et al., 1998).

Introduction 
Weather forecasting stands as a testament to humanity’s enduring quest to understand and anticipate the natural world. Far from being a mere casual prediction, it is a highly sophisticated scientific and technological discipline dedicated to projecting the future state of the Earth’s atmosphere for specific locations and times. This complex endeavor begins with the meticulous collection of vast quantities of real-time data, encompassing everything from surface observations of temperature, pressure, wind, and humidity to upperair measurements gathered by weather balloons, aircraft, radar, and advanced satellite systems. The core of modern weather forecasting lies in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. These are intricate computer programs that embody the fundamental laws of physics governing atmospheric processes, such as fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. By feeding the enormous datasets of current atmospheric conditions into these models, supercomputers solve complex equations to simulate how the atmosphere will evolve over minutes, hours, and days. The raw output from these models is then further refined by human meteorologists who apply their expertise, integrating local geographical influences, historical patterns (climatology), and statistical techniques to produce the most accurate and actionable forecasts. The importance of accurate weather forecasting cannot be overstated. It serves as a vital tool across countless sectors, guiding daily personal decisions, from what to wear to whether to carry an umbrella. Crucially, for agriculture, precise weather forecasts are indispensable. Farmers rely heavily on these predictions to make informed decisions that directly impact crop yield and livestock health. Knowing when to plant seeds, schedule irrigation, apply fertilizers and pesticides, or harvest crops is directly influenced by anticipated rainfall, temperature extremes, and wind conditions. Timely warnings of frost, hailstorms, or prolonged droughts can enable farmers to take protective measures, minimizing losses and ensuring food security. For example, in regions like Telangana, where agriculture is a dominant sector, understanding

Abstract

A huge technical improvement in Information Technology (IT) has made new instruments (e.g. WEB-GIS, Open Source platforms, DBMS with geometric data) available. Distributing geospatial information on the Internet is an enforcing factor for information providers. For dissemination of spatial data, Web-GIS technology can be used, which is amalgamation of several information technologies. Open Source is a philosophy of providing software with better quality, more flexibility, and lower cost. This paper explains the use of Open Source Web-GIS which provides a fast and globally reachable way not only to represent the information about natural resources through maps and statistics but also possibility of processing the information interactively on web.

Keywords : Web-GIS, Open Source, PostgreSQL, PostGIS, GeoServer, Wetlands

1.0 Introduction

India is blessed with diverse and abundant resources. India has been witnessing tremendous growth which has impacted practically every aspect of environment and the common man. Natural resource has been tremendously in use due to increase in population growth, thus generation, dissemination and sharing of information regarding natural resources and data amongst all stake holders have become a necessity. The utilization of modern technologies such as remote sensing, GIS which are effective in management of natural resources as user can store, retrieve and model the spatial information. Web media is playing a vital role in making people aware about the importance and conservation of natural resources. We are presenting such efforts with use of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) tools.

Site-specific weed control technologies practiced in precision farming are defined as machinery or equipment embedded with technologies that detect weeds growing in a crop and take action to maximise the chances of successfully controlling them taking into account predefined factors such as economics.Some of the commercial hardware and software developed for precision agriculture practices comprise tools for weed mapping and control software that adapts spraying to local weed occurrence. However, few farmers have adopted sitespecific weed management, although several studies have shown that weed occurrence and density varies significantly within a farm or a field. Site-specific weed control techniques have gained interest in the precision farming community over the years. Managing weeds on a subfield level requires measuring the varying density of weeds within a field. Decision models aid in the selection and adjustment of the treatments, depending on the weed infestation. The weed control can be done either with herbicides or mechanically. A site-specific herbicide application technology can save large amounts of herbicides. Mechanical weed control techniques adapting to the weed situation in the field are applicable to a wide spectrum of crops.

A system for the discrimination of different weed species and crops from images is done which generates weed maps automatically. Models for the yield effect of weeds are developed and applied in on-farm-research experimental setups. Economic weed thresholds are derived and used for an herbicide application with a patch sprayer.Herbicide use has not eliminated weed problems in agriculture and the need for manual weed removal is still an issue within specialty crop systems, particularly during the first several weeks of crop emergence when competition for resources is greatest.

Precision agriculture is a powerful technology with potentially important applications to weed management. However, growers should remember good agronomic practices, including preventing weed infestations, managing herbicides wisely to prevent resistance, and minimizing environmental impact associated with weed management. Weeds, and methods used to control weeds, can have negative economic and environmental impacts. With precision agriculture, growers can take advantage of the patchy nature of weeds by targeting management efforts only where they are needed instead of wasting expensive and potentially hazardous inputs where weeds are not present. Weeds are patchy because weed spread, survival, and reproduction are variable within a field and over time. Weed patches stay in about the same place from year to year, even though weed density within a patch may vary

19.1. Need for weeding

Weeding is the critical operation to be carried out to obtain a good crop. Weeds are plants which grow in places where they are not wanted. They grow in the fields competing with crops for water, soil nutrients, light and space and thus reduce crop yields. They also harbor insect pests and micro-organisms. Certain weeds release the inhibitors or poisonous substances into the soil which are harmful to plants, human beings and livessecks. They increase the expenditure on labour and equipment, render harvesting difficult and reduce the quality and marketability of agricultural produce. When grown in water channels, they block and or reduce the flow of water.

The weed seeds germinate earlier and grow faster than the crop plant. This phenomenon is more pronounced when coupled with favourable environment like fine soil tilth and the soil receiving adequate water and fertilizers. Weeds flower earlier and produce seeds profusely ahead of the crop. So, these seeds get mixed up with the harvested crop and are distributed to the next season or transported to other places along with the harvested produce.

An agricultural weeder is a tool designed to remove weeds from fields or gardens. It can be used manually or attached to machinery like tillers and power weeders. Weeding is necessary to eliminate unwanted plants that compete with crops, ensuring better growth and profitability. Effective weed management is crucial in crop production, as weeds can reduce yields by stealing nutrients and attracting harmful pests. In recent years, research has focused on non-chemical methods and environmentally friendly alternatives to herbicides for weed control. Mechanical weeding is often the most cost-effective solution. Tools like rotary weeders, mechanical hand weeders, and wetland weeders are generally effective, with wetland versions gaining popularity due to their ability to function in shallow water. These tools uproot weeds and bury them in the mud through their pull-and-push action, making them both safe and eco-friendly. Weeding should be done at least three times during a growing season, with early weeding being the most effective for completely eliminating young weeds.
FUNCTIONS OF WEEDING EQUIPMENT
Secondary tillage equipment is often used for weed management. Weeders help control weeds between planted crops or before sowing. Some weeding machines use mechanical methods to remove unwanted plants without the need for chemicals.
Usage Instructions
• Early weeding is essential: Perform the weeding within 20 days after sowing.
• Delayed weeding can lead to competition between paddy and weeds, harming the crop.
• Move the weeding machine back and forth between rows.
• Conduct a second round of weeding after 15 days, and if possible, a third.

3.1. Cereals and millets

3.1.1. Rice

1. Major weeds

Grasses

Introduction

Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more materials or metal pieces are joined or fused with the application of heat, pressure, or both allowing them to cool and this causes fusion. Besides the work piece, a filler material is also sometimes added to the joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a joint based on welding and that will be stronger than the parent metal.

Arc Welding and its Types

It is a process of joining two metals using an electric current generated by the power supply, which gives the required amount of heat to metal pieces through which the metals melt and when the metal cools, which results in the binding of the two metals. In the case of this type of welding, the power supply is given, which creates an electric arc between the electrode and the metal rod. Both A.C. or D.C. power supplies can be used in arc welding and both consumable and non-consumable rods can be used.

15.1 Introduction

The laws governing the flow of water in wells are referred to as the hydraulics of wells. Just like surface water flows from a higher elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, groundwater also flows from a region of higher water table to a region of lower water table. This difference of water table measured by any two piezometers divided by the longitudinal distance between them is called as hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient plays a dominant role in deciding the flow of groundwater. This hydraulic gradient together with the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material forms the main law of well hydraulics called as Darcy’s law. An understanding of Darcy’s law together with some other laws as discussed subsequently in this chapter is essential in order to know the discharge of a well in a particular formation. Darcy’s law is valid for studying groundwater flow in alluvial formations. However, it is not valid for aquifers having hard rock areas.

11.1 Introduction

The laws governing the flow of water in wells are referred to as the hydraulics of wells. Just like surface water flows from a higher elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, groundwater also flows from a region of higher water table to a region of lower water table. This difference of water table measured by any two piezometers divided by the longitudinal distance between them is called as hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient plays a dominant role in deciding the flow of groundwater. This hydraulic gradient together with the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material forms the main law of well hydraulics called as Darcy’s law. An understanding of Darcy’s law together with some other laws as discussed subsequently in this chapter is essential in order to know the discharge of a well in a particular formation. Darcy’s law is valid for studying groundwater flow in alluvial formations. However, it is not valid for aquifers having hard rock areas.

After the agricultural activities a number of by-products are obtained and these are known as agricultural waste. These include residues of different crops like stalks, straws, leaves, roots, husks and shells. The animal waste is in the form of manure. All these agricultural wastes are free of cost however; they can be utilized as an important resource (Lionel and Arnold, 1931). Agrawal (1998) has mentioned India as the final dumpyard. The wastes obtained from various resources can be converted into heat, steam, charcoal, methanol, ethanol, biofuel, compost, energy, biogas, construction and high valued chemical compounds. Many times these agri-industrial wastes are not completely utilized and either they rot in open areas or are burned in the fields.

Introduction

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed crops in the world. Wheat is perhaps best known for its different end-use baking properties as determined by grain texture, protein content and quality. Wheat is generally traded by and classified into “hard” and “soft” market classes on the basis of grain hardness or texture of the wheat kernel (caryopsis). Soft wheats have softer endosperm texture that fractures easily, therefore requiring less energy to mill, yields smaller particles, and has less starch damage after milling when compared to hard wheats. Hard and soft are used with slightly different connotations in different parts of the world. In Western Europe, hard is applied primarily to durum wheats and the soft applied to bread wheat. Elsewhere the term is applied to different cultivars within the species Triticum aestivum. In general, hard wheats are used for bread baking, while soft wheats are used for cookies and cake making. Hard wheat requires more force to crack the kernel, maintains a larger particle size, passes through sieves more easily and has more damaged starch MacRitchie (1980). Higher starch damage is required for good bread making quality Tipples et al. (1994) but is detrimental to the biscuit making quality.

Abstract

Wheat is unique among cereals because of its ability to form viscoelastic dough. Variety of products such as leavened and unleavened breads, pasta, cookies, and breakfast cereals are prepared using wheat. The viscoelastic property of dough is mainly due to the presence of gluten proteins viz., gliadins and glutenins. Variations among these proteins play a significant role in determining the quality of wheat. Although considerable studies have been carried out on quantity and quality of protein and their relation to bread quality, very little work has been reported on their relation with quality of Indian traditional products like chapati and tandoori roti. Results indicate that ratio between gliadins and glutenins are important in determining the chapati quality. It has been found that varieties having 5+10 HMW glutenin subunits with IBL/ IRS chromosomes are more suitable for the preparation of chapati and roti. This article is focused on the relation between protein and its subunit composition and the quality of chapatti and roti quality.

Introduction

Carbohydrates constitute nearly 80% of the total dry matter of wheat kernel. Starch is the predominant form, with cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans present in lesser amount. Starch is present in discrete granules within the cells of the endosperm. Starch content is available in the range of 65% to 75% and generally related negatively to the protein content. Starch structure is a crucial determinant of many end-product uses of wheat. While the amylose /amylopectin ratio is a useful descriptor of starch structure, a more complete analysis of the population of the molecules which constitute a particular starch is considerably more revealing. The molecules range from the high degree of polymerization (10⁷ – 109 glucose units) and heavily branched amylopectin population, to the lower degree of polymerization (103 -106 glucose units), and infrequently branched amylopectin population. Starches with widely differing structures are suited to particular end uses. For example, starches with no amylose, the so called waxy starches are particularly suited to use as thickeners or gel forming agents because they form a clear stable gel with little retrogradation. In contrast, starch with high amylose content form hydrogen bonded insoluble aggregations which are suited to use in adhesives, plastics and as a source of dietary-fibre starch. The size and branching pattern of starch are also important determinants of the suitability of starches for particular end-uses due to the effects these parameters have on gelatinization temperature, starch swelling and viscosity.

7.5.1. Functions

The two primary functions of tyres, especially rear ones, are to provide maximum work output while ploughing the field and for haulage.

Abstract

The present study discusses the cropping pattern changes in Andhra Pradesh agriculture will leads to crop diversification and crop concentration using with Geographical Information System (GIS). Crop data were compiled for the triennium ending period 1980-81, 1990-91, 2000-01 and 2004-05 from various statistical abstracts of Andhra Pradesh. For measuring the crop diversification indices, we have used the Herfindahle index and for crop specialization is measured by using the Location quotient method. The level of crop diversification in the some districts of the state in the eighties is very high. However with the advent of green revolution, there had been a moderate crop unification or crop concentration in the eighties. This trend of crop unification is found to be reversed after 1990-91, though the magnitude of the change is not very striking. The crop diversification is observed to differ across the districts. The level of crop diversification is high in the agricultural backward regions of Rayalaseema and Telangana districts and low in the agriculturally progressive Coastal Andhra districts. During the period 1990-91 to 2004-05, the major trends in crop concentration are increase in the concentration of rice in the districts where it is popularly grown and decline in the concentration of coarse cereal crops, pulses and oilseeds. The concentration of spice crops and fruits and vegetables are also on an increasing trend, which they are popularly grown in their respective districts.

Keywords : Cropping Pattern, Diversification, Location Quotient, Andhra Pradesh, GIS

The extensive integration of drone technology in agriculture is swiftly revolutionizing farming practices, providing substantial enhancements in efficiency, precision, and sustainability. Drones provide farmers a cost-efficient and effective method for crop monitoring, resource management, and yield optimization. Drones facilitate high-resolution imagery acquisition, real-time crop health monitoring, and precise application of fertilizers or pesticides, empowering farmers to make data-driven decisions that improve productivity. As technology becomes increasingly accessible, particularly in developing regions, its usage is steadily rising. Agriculturalists are progressively recognizing the capacity of drones to decrease labor expenses, mitigate resource wastage, and improve environmental sustainability, establishing them as a crucial instrument in the future of agriculture.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE WIDESPREAD ADOPTION OF DRONE TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE
The extensive integration of drone technology in agriculture offers both obstacles and prospects. Comprehending these factors can influence the future of agriculture and realize its complete potential. Drone technology is being integrated into Indian agriculture; yet, obstacles to wider implementation persist. Challenges
• Significant Initial Expense: The initial capital required for acquiring drones, along with essential sensors and software, can be excessive, particularly for small-scale agricultural producers. The expenses associated with training and upkeep exacerbate the financial strain, hindering certain farmers from embracing the technology.
• Technical Skills and Training: Proficient operation of drones necessitates a specific degree of technical acumen. Agriculturalists must acquire the skills

10.1 Introduction

Winds are the motion of air around the Earth. This movement in air is caused by the uneven heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. The idea of using wind as a form of power is not new. The traditional applications of wind were primarily as sources of kinetic energy for rural, agricultural and a limited number of industrial uses such as pumping water and grinding grain.

Presently wind energy can be used for two major applications, such as wind mills for pumping water for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes and second application is as aero-generator for electricity generation for domestic and industrial uses. In addition to this, presently wind energy battery charger are also available, which can store energy for lights, radio communication, hospital equipment and to power various emergencyrelated equipment.

The wind energy has an enormous resource, but the problems of utilizing the winds are many and varied. Wind energy is very diffuse in nature and local topographical features significantly alter the prevailing winds, thus leading to the extremely site specific nature of wind energy.

Scientists have estimated that as much as 10% of the world’s electricity could be prepared by wind generators by the middle of 21 century. India has estimated wind power potential of 40,000 MW. India now, ranks fourth in the world in wind power generation.

The world’s largest wind farms are in California (USA), where wind turbines can generate power up to about 1120 MW. The first wind mill used as source of electric power was built in Denmark in 1890.

4.1 Introduction

The wind is caused by the motion of air. In different regions, there are pressure differences that cause winds. There is a tremendous amount of energy carried by them. The use of wind energy can be profitable in regions with strong winds for a significant part of the year. The wind is a form of solar energy. The wind is caused by uneven heating of air and land by the sun. The earth’s rotation and geological irregularities also play a role. Heating causes air to rise, and cooling causes cooler air to fall to fill the space. As a result, the air mass moves. On a global basis, the poles exert a primary forcing function that allows the equator to receive surface winds from the poles. 

If the earth’s surface is perfectly smooth, the wind flows parallel to the earth’s surface without any friction and the wind velocity will be uniform at different heights above the earth’s surface. As the earth’s surface is not smooth, it offers friction, slows down the movement of the wind near the surface. Therefore, the wind velocity increases very slowly with increase in height up to a certain level, and there after the wind velocity increases with increase in height more rapidly (Fig.5.1). When the wind speeds are measured at different heights above the ground and plotted on a graph with height Z in logarithmic scale on y-axis and wind velocity on x-axis, the wind velocity will be zero at certain height above the ground and thereafter the wind velocity uniformly increases with increase in height. The height at which the mean wind velocity is zero due to roughness is called roughness parameter (d). Therefore, the roughness parameter is defined as the height at which mean wind velocity is zero due to roughness of the earth’s surface. In a cropped soil, the crop also obstructs free movement of air. If wind profile measurements are taken in a cropped soil and are plotted on a graph with height on y-axis in logarithmic scale and mean wind velocity on the x-axis, the mean wind velocity will be zero at a height above the roughness parameter. The difference in height (Z-d) at which the wind velocity is zero when the height is plotted on logarithmic scale is called zero plane displacement (Z0). Therefore, the zero plane displacement can be defined as the height by which the roughness parameter increases due to presence of the crop (Fig.5.2).

Windows is an operating system with a Graphical User Interface (GUI). GUI displays graphical objects called icons, which represents the items you use. Also it is a menu driven interface, where you have menus and submenus to perform even the most basic tasks such as File open, Copy, and Help etc. The user need not know the computer commands, he just need to know simple English language to operate windows. This feature of windows made it a widely accepted operating system. Also windows allow multiprocessing environment, where we can perform more than one task simultaneously. For example, if you need to take a print out of a very long report which may take a couple of hours, you may give the command, and leave it at the background, and then you can keep working on the other applications. Windows supports a very useful pointing device called a mouse. With the mouse you can go anywhere on the screen and click where ever you want and pass instructions.

INTRODUCTION
A thermostat is a control valve in the cooling system that regulates water flow based on a temperature signal. It plays a vital role in maintaining the engine’s optimal operating temperature. Positioned within the engine’s cooling system, typically between the engine and the radiator, the thermostat is specifically engineered to determine the precise timing for opening and closing the valve. By doing so, it ensures that internal combustion engines consistently operate within the desired temperature range, promoting efficiency and preventing overheating or overcooling.