eChapters

Abstract

Human Resource Management (HRM) is an essential function of every organization. Information Technology (IT) application has made such ‘human resource management’ function easy, to a great extent. Now a day, IT has been used widely across the organizations to perform different functions like, Recruitment, training, maintenance and development etc. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is one of the latest contributions of IT to the area of human resource management, which is going to revolutionise management in 21st Century. Technology has brought changes in the existing working styles of organisations. By the introduction of HRIS, it enhances the efficiency of the organisation by changing the traditional way of working. In Human Resource Information Systems, many organizations use employee data in traditional ways. These can create conflict with the rights and interests of employees, with external stakeholders, and with society at large. The present paper discusses such issues. Other soft issues like, challenges and possible solutions are also discussed.

6.1. Humus

Fraction of organic matter.

Complex and resistant mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic substance.

6.2. Humus formation

1. Decomposition: Chemicals in the plant residues are broken down by soil microbes.

Simpler chemicals are metabolized into new compounds in the body tissue of soil microbes.

New compounds are subjected to further modification and synthesis as the microbial tissue is subsequently attacked by other soil microbes.

Symbolic systems provide logical reasoning and explicit knowledge representation, whereas sub-symbolic models offer learning, adaptation and pattern-recognition capabilities. This chapter explains how combining these approaches can create more accurate, adaptive and interpretable intelligent systems. It discusses rule-based systems, logic programming, ontologies, neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computation and swarm intelligence. Neural-symbolic, neuro-fuzzy, rule-augmented and ontology-aware architectures are examined, along with loose, tight and deep integration strategies. Applications in healthcare, cybersecurity, manufacturing and knowledge-based information systems demonstrate their practical potential. Challenges involving integration complexity, scalability, knowledge engineering, transparency and continuous updating are considered, together with future directions in human-centred hybrid intelligence.

Hydraulic pumps are the devices utilized to transfer pressure energy to liquids at the expense of electrical energy. The electrical energy is transferred to a motor which converts it into mechanical work and a pump is coupled to the shaft. The pump converts the mechanical energy to hydraulic or potential energy. 

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is the study of liquids and their behavior, specifically focusing on the use of pressurized fluid to generate power in engineering systems. Hydraulic systems operate by applying pressure to a small amount of fluid, which in turn generates significant power. The development of hydraulic technology has enabled major advancements, such as lifting heavy loads and rotating large shafts with minimal effort through mechanical linkages.
Compared to mechanical and electrical systems, hydraulic power systems offer greater flexibility and produce more power relative to their size. They also provide quick and precise responses to control inputs. As a result, hydraulic systems are widely used in modern applications such as aircraft, automobiles, heavy industrial machinery, and various machine tools. This article will focus on the hydraulic systems used in tractors.
HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION
Hydrostatic transmissions rely entirely on hydraulics, using the power of oil to transmit energy. The system consists of two main components: a variable displacement pump and a hydraulic motor. The pump’s displacement is controlled by a movable swash plate, which adjusts the piston stroke. Essentially, the system operates as a variable-displacement hydraulic pump driving a fixed-displacement hydraulic motor.
The key benefits of hydrostatic transmissions include the ability to infinitely vary ground speed and rapidly change directions. They are also known for their reliability, with self-protecting features that prevent operator abuse.
Additionally, foot pedal-controlled systems have a built-in safety feature that allows for a controlled stop simply by lifting the foot from the pedal. However, hydrostatic transmissions have some drawbacks, including high cost, sensitivity to contamination, and slight power loss at the PTO shaft. Additionally, when

Hydraulic turbines is a device which transforms the hydraulic energy or potential energy existing with the working medium to mechanical energy. The working medium is normally water which run the hydraulic turbine. The hydraulic energy is available with water by virtue of its height or altitude. The water which flow through the mountains is stored by constructing a dam or reservoir.

In drip irrigation water is distributed throughout the field from a system of pressurized pipelines. The pressure must be sufficient to overcome the frictional losses and elevation differences. The system also deserves discharge from all the emitters and the emitters must dissipate the pressure difference between the inlet to emitters and atmospheric pressure.

The flow through the drip pipes may be laminar or turbulent or a combination of both. The laminar flow is characterized by the layers of cylindrical tubes of which the maximum velocity is at the center about double of the average velocity. The turbulent flows having pulsatory cross current velocities and maximum velocity is about only 1.25 time of the average velocity. Turbulent f lows loss more energy than laminar flow due to development of the cross current velocity.

Reynolds Number

The criterion for distinguishing the flow from laminar to turbulent was developed by Osborne Reynolds (1842-1900) and was named as Reynolds number; Re . The Reynolds number in circular pipes flowing full is expressed as

11.1. Hydraulic system

It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted equipment by hydraulic means. All the present day tractors are equipped with a hydraulic control system for operating three point hitches. Some of the tractors are fitted with a hydraulic brake system and a few others are fitted with a hydraulic steering system. Tipping trailers, front mounted loaders or dozers are examples of multi use of hydraulics.

11.2. Principle

The working principle of a hydraulic system is based on Pascal’s law (Fig 11.1.) This law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. A small force acting on a small area can produce higher force on a surface of larger area.

14.1 Introduction

Hydro-electric power is electricity produced by the movement of fresh water from rivers and lakes. Gravity causes water to flow downwards and this downward motion of water contains kinetic energy, that can be converted into mechanical energy, and then from mechanical energy into electrical energy in hydro-electric power stations. (“Hydro” comes from the Greek word hydra, meaning water). At a good site hydro-electricity can generate very cost-effective electricity.

Abstract

The Mesozoic sediments contribute around 54% of the oil and 44% of the gas reserves of the world (Bois et al. 1982). Indian Mesozoic basins occupy an area of about 400 x 103 sq. km and are characterized as frontier basins under category II - IV. These basins are mostly overlain by the Deccan Traps of Late Cretaceous age and are least explored. Deccan Syneclise is one of the largest Mesozoic basins in India, covering an area of ~ 273 x 103 sq. km. Geophysical studies have inferred hidden sub-trappean Mesozoic sediments with thickness up to 2.5 km. It is considered that requisite heat generation due to Deccan Trap volcanism soon after the Cretaceous sedimentation may have acted as a catalyst in hydrocarbon generation. Surface geochemical prospecting surveys along with carbon isotopic studies have been used to assess hydrocarbon generation potential of this part of the basin. The area adjoining Nandurbar beneath Narmada-Tapti region of Deccan Syneclise was selected for geochemical studies where geophysical studies have shown considerable sediment thickness. Surface geochemical studies indicate the generation of light gaseous hydrocarbons, C1 and SC2+ in the range of 3 to 1187 ppb and 1 to 1449 ppb, respectively. The carbon isotopic signatures of selected soil gas samples dC13 CH4 in the range of - 24 to -39.4‰ PDB) suggest thermogenic origin

Abstract

A total of 30 groundwater samples were collected in four different seasons (Pre Monsoon, South West Monsoon, North East Monsoon and Post Monsoon) from the coastal aquifers of Kalpakkam region of Tamilnadu. The samples were collected covering the seasonal and lithological variations to infer the influence of natural geochemical processes and anthropogenic sources on the groundwater chemistry. The collected samples were analysed for the parameters like EC, pH and Major ions. The saturation index of silicates and carbonates shows that state of saturation to over saturation, but the sulphate minerals is dominantly under saturated. In the inverse modeling three models are obtained using PHREEQC and the error percentage is noted as 7.45%.

Abstract

In Gadilam river basin, groundwater is found in both hard rock and sedimentary terrain and is the most important source of rural/urban drinking water supply. Gadilam river basin has gained its importance due to the presence of Neyveli Lignite open cast mine (NLC), group of industrial estate (SIPCOT), extensive depressurization of Cuddalore aquifer and boreholes of New Veeranam Scheme (NVS) in the downstream of the basin. A total of 178 water samples were collected in four different seasons at various lithologies. The collected samples were analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters using standard procedures. Geochemical indicators of groundwater were used to identify the chemical processes that control hydrogeochemsitry. Interpretation of hydrogeochemical data suggests that leaching of ions followed by weathering and anthropogenic impact controls the chemistry of the groundwater. Isotopic study reveals that recharge from meteoric source in sedimentary terrain and rock water interaction with significant evaporation prevails in hard rock region. This thorough understanding helps us to make judicial usage and to maintain the quality of this commodity.

Abstract

Quality of water is affected by natural and man induced contamination to groundwater system. Area chosen for study has gained its own importance due to the location of two lignite mines and a Thermal power plant in operation. Extensive large scale pumping of water is done for lignite mining. The mine drainage and drainage from thermal power plant along with agricultural return flow from lignite charged waters increases the severity of problem. In order to achieve a panacea for the above-mentioned situation, the study has incorporated and integrated in all related factors to get a meaningful interpretation for groundwater quality and quantity management in and around Neyveli area. The frequent failure of monsoon has added to the existing problem of over exploitation. To attain a panacea for water chemistry groundwater samples were collected for four different seasons. Higher EC and TDS values are observed in Southeast and Southwest part of the study area. In Southwest monsoon and Summer seasons HCO₃Cl dominates the anions, with few representations for SO₄. In Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon season Na + K – Ca + Mg is the dominant. Thermodynamic, studies reveal that groundwater of the region are stable with Kaolinite stability field in all the silicate systems. Bicarbonates derived from silicate mineral weathering are noted in the NW, Northern and in the mining region. These regions are located in the NW and NE part of the study area. Comparison of water quality to standards shows that the water can be used for drinking and for irrigation purposes except in few locations.

Common groundwater investigations include necessary considerations of the system’s influx sources, flow regime, discharge points and geomorphological characteristics of the area. Often, hydrogeomorphological mapping of an area is required as to determine these characteristics. The primary data can be acquired from the survey of India toposheet map and the satellite images. The secondary data set includes the satellite imageries, the preparation of digital elevation model (DEM) and digitized precipitation maps.

The first step in the procedure of hydrogeomorphological mapping is to calculate the watershed/basin area, which serves as a mask to define the area of interest. The watershed/basin calculation relies on the digital elevation data and assumes that topographic aspect (dip direction of the cell surface) completely controls the extent to which surface flow emanating from each point in the study area can reach the low point in the valley. The calculation of the potential annual recharge of the aquifer combines techniques described above with data for recharge areas, DEM aspect, and precipitation. First, the catchment area of the recharge zones must be calculated in a process similar to the watershed analysis, returning the area associated with the catchment coded as “1”. A simple multiplication overlay with the precipitation data and the catchment areas yields a result giving the amount of precipitation for each catchment cell. Before using the precipitation data, we converted it to meters so as to keep units consistent. The precipitation amounts within the catchment area (i.e. each cell value) are to be summed, yielding the amount of water available for influx into the groundwater system. Finally precipitation per year data can be acquired.

Identifying surface areas of groundwater discharge is based on the observation that such areas provide a relatively constant source of moisture, which is readily exploited by vegetation in semi-arid region. Thus areas with year-round green vegetation are assumed to be indicators of discharge. The relative amount of vegetation in a scene can be estimated by calculating a vegetation index (Reddy et al, 1989 and Tucker 1979).

The world is head98ing towards a water crisis. Africa and West Asia are likely to be worst affected by water scarcity, but with increasing population, water may fall short even in the other parts of the world. According to the recent UN report, the supply of clean and fresh water is depleting at such an alarming rate in some regions, that within 30 years, about two third of population will suffer moderate to severe water stress.

In hydrogeomorphological context of social environment the water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life. The available water resources are under tremendous pressure due to increased demands. The time is not far when water, which is the free gift of nature, will become a scare commodity. Therefore, conservation and preservation of water resources are urgently required to be done at priority basis. Water management has always been practiced in our communities since ancient times. But such practices have faded away during the past few decades mainly due to lack awareness. Hydrogeologists feel that the water harvesting practices must be urgently implemented to overcome the problem of water crises. In India the Ministry of water Resources is endeavouring to make rainwater harvesting a part of every day life in villages and cities as a people’s movement. Hydrogeomorphological aspect of social environment include (a) Social - Cultural -Administrative Consideration (b) Education and Training in Hydrogeology for Professionals and Technicians (c) Education for Farmers and Women (d) Education for Masses. These are described as below:

The beginning of the 20^th century was heralded by methodological revolution in geomorphological studies brought in by Davis (1899). His classical model of geographical cycle defined by him ‘ as a period of time during which and uplifted landmass undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into a low featureless plain (peneplain)’ dominated the geomorphological investigations all over the world throughout 1^st half of the 20^th century.

The statistical techniques by Horton (1932 and 1945) brought quantitative revolution in the field of geomorphology when he presented quantitative analysis of morphometric characteristics of fluvially originated drainage basin. Post 1950 geomorphology has undergone vast change in the methods and approaches to the study of landforms, conceptual framework, paradigm and thrust areas of study. The most outstanding contribution to the advancement of geomorphological knowledge in this period is the adoption of quantitative approach based on deductive scientific method to the study of landforms and processes at short spatial and temporal scales (Strahler, 1956 and Schumm, 1956).

Several attempts have been made in the world in past to classify large territories and landforms into morpho-units. Valuable contributions pertaining to landform analysis have been summarized below: Joerg (1914) subdivided North America into natural regions, Fenneman (1914) established physiographic boundaries and gave physiographic divisions of the United States, whereas Anderson (1941) gave physiographic divisions of Columbia plateau. Howard and Spock (1940) and Weaver (1965) presented the excellent ways of classification of the landforms while Wood and Snell (1960) applied the quantitative systems for the classification of the landforms. However, Linton (1951) and Hammond (1954 and 1965) gave techniques for mapping delineating small scale and large-scale landforms.

6.1 Introduction

When rainfall strikes a ground surface, some losses like initial and infiltration will occur. After these losses are fulfilled, runoff will begin. The runoff will ultimately reach a stream. The main routes through which runoff flows are (i) overland flow, (ii) interflow and (iii) groundwater flow. Overland flow which is also called as surface flow flows over the land mass and reaches a stream. Overland flow soon reaches a stream and if it occurs in sufficient quantity, it forms an important element in the formation of flood peaks. In small and moderate storms, there may have predominant initial and infiltration losses resulting minimum amount of surface runoff and this is especially true in case of permeable soils. If the soil is impermeable, then there may have reasonable runoff. However, surface runoff is an important factor in streamflow only for heavy or high intensity rainfall.

Water is a social requirement. Society now become aware about it’s dependence upon water and hence realized the importance of water in sustaining not only the development but also life. Water: too little, too much, too dirty; is general scenario in the world. But with increase in population water become limiting resource and is becoming scarcer and scarcer day by day. As water become scarcer commodity, the users (stakeholders) become more conscious regarding their share in water and ultimately this situation may lead to water conflicts. Earlier water related problems were generally tackled by hydro-engineers, but now in present climate changed scenario these problems go beyond the hydraulics and hydrology. Now a days politicians, ecologists, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), the media and the stakeholders etc are playing a crucial role in decision making in respect to water management issues. Now water projects are designed in reference to social context (Social context means cultural, economic, political, sociological, legal and other such aspects). When social factors are taken into consideration while tackling the water problems, it could not possible to satisfy all involved. Thus it is required to agree upon a compromise solution acceptable to all. Over recent few decades, information and communication technology (ICT) flourishes with great advances. It provides the ways to search for compromise solutions. In this chapter information, hydroinformatics, evolution of hydroinformatics and role of internet in hydroinformatics are discussed.

In this era of computer, mathematical models become integral part of hydrologic studies due to advancement in soft technology. But question always arises as ‘Why should modeling?’ It was well expressed by Rosenblueth and Wiener (1945) as

No substantial part of the universe is so simple that it can be grasped and controlled without abstraction. Abstraction consists in replacing the parts of the universe under consideration by a model of similar but simpler structure. Models, formal or intellectual on the one hand, or material on the other are thus a central necessity of scientific procedure.