eChapters

Meteorology is derived from the Greek word meteoro which means above the earth’s surface; i.e., the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere experienced at a given time, in any location on the surface of the earth is known as weather. Thus meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere or the weather. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the ‘physics of the lower atmosphere’. The main focus of meteorology is to understand the weather processes and forecast the weather. Solar radiation, the air mass and moisture are the three key ingredients that make up weather. The exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere determines the characteristic of weather. The observable weather events are known as meteorological phenomena and are defined by a set of variables called weather elements. Atmospheric temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind and visibility, etc. are examples of such weather elements. The weather elements are not separate entities. They are closely related with each other and are highly variable in nature. Meteorology explains and analyses the changes of these weather elements.

Meteorology

The major subdivisions of meteorology are dynamic meteorology (or atmospheric dynamics) and physical meteorology (or atmospheric physics). The dynamic meteorology is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the three-dimensional, time-varying, macro scale motions and energy transformations in the atmosphere. The science of dynamic meteorology is meant to develop models based on the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equations. The physical meteorology is concerned with the processes that alter the physical properties and the chemical composition of air parcels as they move through the atmosphere.

The entire world is now facing a crisis situation. The problems encountered to address the crisis are interactive with each other and there is no easy way to find solution. The world’s population is expected to increase by 70 per cent by the end of year 2050 and there is need to step up agricultural production for a hunger free world. Nearly 70 per cent of the fresh water is used in agriculture sector. The demand for water in agriculture sector can be judged by the fact that several thousands of litres of water is required to produce one kilogram of food grains. Whatever maybe the source from which water is drawn for agriculture, all the sources depend upon the precipitation for replenishment on continuous basis. The precipitation patterns are not consistent and are known for greater variability from season to season, year to year and from region to region. These inconsistencies are further increasing due to recent threat of climate change triggered by the atmospheric pollution. The atmospheric pollution due to increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is responsible for rise in temperatures. The rise in temperature induced changes in global pressure and wind systems. The consequence effect of it is changes in rainfall patterns, frequent occurrence of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, heat waves, intensified cyclonic activity. Rise in temperatures is increasing evaporation of water and water requirement of crops as well. There is considerable increase of the chemicals in the agriculture sector in the form of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and weedicides how to increase crop production and protection of crops from biotic and abiotic stresses. Consequently, there is increased pollution of water resources which may adversely affect the availability of fresh water, which is essential and critical input in agriculture for increasing agricultural production. It calls for efficient utilization of water resources in agriculture. More concerted efforts are required immediately to:
• Improve water use efficiency in agriculture
• Reduce pollution of water resources
• Conservation of fresh water resources
• Reduce emissions in agriculture sector and
• Prevent dwindling of fresh water resources

1.1 General

Renewable technologies are considered to be clean sources of energy. The optimal use of these resources minimize environmental impacts, produce minimum secondary wastes, and are sustainable based on current and future economic and social needs. Sustainable development requires methods and tools to measure and compare human activities’ and its environmental impacts for various products. Renewable energy sources (RES), which include biomass, hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind, and marine energies, supply 14% of the world’s total energy demand. Renewable resources refer to primary, domestic, and clean or inexhaustible energy resources. Large-scale hydropower energy supplies 20 % of the global electricity need. Wind power in coastal and other windy regions is a promising source of energy.

Renewable energy resources can make a decisive contribution to the economic, social and sustainable development of rural regions in developing countries, yet the consumption of fossil fuels is dramatically increasing along with improvements in the quality of life, the industrialization of developing nations, and the increase of the world’s population. It has long been recognized that excessive consumption of fossil fuel leads not only to a diminishing fossil fuel reserves more quickly, but also has a significant adverse impact on the environment. Such impacts result in increased health risks and the threat of global climate change. Changes to improve environmental conditions are becoming more politically acceptable globally, especially in developed countries. Society is slowly moving towards seeking more sustainable production methods, minimizing waste, reducing air pollution from vehicles, generating distributed energy, conserving of native forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Increasing consumption of fossil fuel to meet out current energy demands, however, has sounded alarms over regarding potential energy crisis. This has generated a resurgence of interest in promoting renewable alternatives to meet the developing world’s growing energy needs. Excessive use of fossil fuels has caused global warming from carbon dioxide emissions, therefore, promoting renewable forms of clean energy is eagerly required. To monitor the level of these greenhouse gas emissions, an agreement that has fulfills the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol was create with overall pollution prevention targets.

Water is an important element for life on the earth. It is an essential recurrent natural resource for environmental sustenance, agricultural productivity, industrial growth, power production, enrichment and renewal of land and air. For easy assess to the water, the first human settlements occurred along the banks of rivers and ensuing civilizations flourished in river valleys. For example, the Indian civilization of Mohanjodaro and Harappa developed in the Indus valley, the Egyptian civilization in the Nile valley, the Chinese civilization in the Yangtze valley, the Babylonian civilization between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, Aztec, Maya and Incas civilization in the basin of Amazon river.

The industrial revolution, which, began in the early 18th century in some European and Asian countries, set in the motion for new forces in the society and greatly changed the pattern of social life on the earth. Rapid industrialization and urbanization subsequently brought many changes in the environment and ecosystems in the world. India also witnessed a phenomenon of industrial development in the post independent era. The last four to five decades have witnessed population explosion and increase in the per capita consumption of food, consumer goods and utilization of natural resources. These have lead to the proportionate increase in the domestic and industrial effluent generation in India. The water pollution is continuously increasing at an alarming rate in Europe and Asia. By the end of this century. India's Population is projected to double itself from its present level. Similarly the per capita consumption of food has been estimated to increase by 40% resulting in 50 % production of industrial and domestic effluents in near future.

Apart from the quantity, there will be qualitative changes in the effluent generation which are likely to contain greater amount of oil, toxic chemicals, detergents and dyes. A large number of these compounds are non-biodegradable and are cumulative, thus rendering toxic product. Certain group of animals and plants are selective in their functions and can executive certain toxic chemicals and heavy metals. These biomes are helping more effectively on recycling of industrial effluent as well as domestic effluent management system.

In nature, there exists a balance between abiotic and biotic communities like animals and plants population, raw materials and total biomass present at any time. This balance ensures natural recycling and optimum production in naturally balanced ecosystems. The plant growth is slow, but it ensures optimum utilization of waste products and a healthy environment. The increased population and its human desire to possess all comforts and pleasures had lead to over exploitation of natural resources. The high demand of natural resources lead to the beginning of waste accumulation due to the creation of man made imbalances in the environment. The environment is to provide up to date information about important concepts in surrounding. Information is presented from an analytical, observational and multidisciplinary perspective from which we must view environmental issues in order to the study successfully.

1.0 Overview

Natural resources sustain life and are critical for economic development of nations. In developing countries like India where more than half the population is rural, economic development is inextricably linked with agricultural development. In these countries, the food and livelihoods security of the poor are critically associated with access to the services provided by the natural resources - land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate resources. The natural resources are finite, and with increasing population, economic growth, urbanization, and demands for food and other agricultural commodities, these are being increasingly strained. As a result, the productive capacity of the natural resource base is shrinking and deteriorating. Sustaining the productive capacity of natural resources for future generations, while meeting the food and other demands of the growing populations, is the major development challenge of the twenty first century.

In India, during the last forty years the net sown area under agriculture has remained nearly constant at 141 million ha. In the same period, the population has more than doubled (from 541 million in 1970 to 1186 million in 2010) and per capita income grew by more than 3.5 times (from Rs 14824 in 1970 to Rs 53331 in 2010). As available land resources for agriculture are finite, increases in agricultural production to meet the growing demands of the population have to come from intensification of agriculture on the same lands. As a result, the quality of soils on these lands is gradually deteriorating both at the farm and ecosystem levels. The major threats to soil quality come from loss of organic carbon, erosion, nutrient imbalance, compaction, salinization, water-logging, decline in soil bio-diversity, urbanization, and contamination with heavy metals. More than 100 million ha of the total cultivated land of 141 million ha is stated to be under some form of soil degradation.

Similarly, utilizable fresh water resources of India are finite at about 1123 billion cubic meters (BSM), of which about 690 BCM are from surface water resources and 433 BCM are from groundwater. This supply is shared among multiple uses: human and animal consumption, agriculture, urban uses, industry and for provision of environmental services. The total water demand in 2010 is estimated at 710 BCM and is projected to increase to 1180 BCM by 2050. Several parts of India are already facing severe water shortages as a result of the growing demand for water. The quality of water resources is also impacted by agricultural intensification and development, and is increasingly a matter of concern. By the year 2050, when population is expected to stabilize, the shortages will only intensify. The country as whole can be on the verge of becoming a water scarce country, with nearly all the presently estimated utilizable water resources being put to use.

Biodiversity natural resources refer to the abundance of different species and ecosystems in nature. These resources are the primary sources of present and future productive agriculture and human well being, as they provide the basic resources for use in breeding crops and livestock, soil formation and structure, soil fertility, nutrient cycling and the provision of water services. India is among the 12 mega diversity regions of the world. It is known to have more than 18,000 species of higher plants including, 160 major and minor crop species and 325 of their wild relatives. Increasing pressure from human population growth, agricultural intensification, urbanization, pollution and degradation of land, soil and water resources are having a negative impact on the plant, animal and microbial biodiversity resources of the country and their productivity.

1.1 General

Food is basic necessity for the survival of human beings. It is derived from agriculture which traps and transfers solar energy in chemical energy in the form of biomass and end products are processed and utilized for food, feed, fibre, fertilizer, and fuel. Indian’s economic security continues to be foreseen upon agricultural sector. Agriculture supports 52 per cent of population, as against about 75 per cent at the time of dependence. Despite the focus on industrialization, agriculture remains a dominant sector of the Indian economy both in terms of contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as a source of employment to millions across the country. India occupies a leading position in global trade of agricultural products. However, its total agricultural export basket accounts for a little over 2.15 per cent of the world agricultural trade. The major export destinations are USA, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Nepal and Bangladesh. Among agricultural commodities, basmati rice, spices, oil meals, sugar, cotton and castor oil have been leading export commodities.

Agriculture is an essential ingredient in overall development of India economic. The history of Indian agriculture in dates back to Indus Valley Civilization and even before that in some places of Southern India. India ranks second worldwide in farm outputs.

On the eve of Independence, 70 per cent of India’s nation income was from agricultural sector. Before 1947, over 85 per cent of country’s population lives in villages where livelihood completely depended on agriculture, which contributed over 95per cent of country’s income. Agricultural sector was most important sector in Indian economy facing massive stagnation and continuous determination. In the present context, around 60 – 70 per cent of Indian population directly or indirectly depends upon the agricultural sector and currently it contributes to 16 per cent of the Indian gross domestic product.

In today’s times, a lot of innovation has come into agriculture. This very hard occupation requires an amalgation of farmers with the scientists. From the rural areas after education the technocrats are moving to the cities and this is creating a great loss to the agriculturists. As the population is growing so is the demand for food. Due to shortage in the storage systems the amount of wastage has increased a lot. It is an important aspect to be looked into. A lot of waste material is seen in the vegetable markets, city markets and near the slums. This causes a lot of pollution and spoils the environment. It is important to know why is it increasing and why the facilities for wastes do not exist.

1.1. Definition

A tractor is a specific vehicle designed to deliver a high tractive torque at slow speeds, for the purposes of haulage or for pulling an agricultural implement or equipment or machinery. This vehicle is also used as a source of power for stand-alone agricultural machineries. The word tractor is taken from Latin being the agent noun of trahere “to pull”.

1.2. History of evolution

The first engine-powered farm tractors used steam and were introduced in 1868. These engines resembled small road locomotives. They were used for general road haulage and in particular for timber trade. The most popular steam tractor was the Garrett 4CD.

In 1887, gasoline-fuelled engines were tried as an alternative to steam engines. Later, Henry Ford produced his first experimental gasoline powered tractor in 1907, under the direction of his chief engineer Joseph Galamb. It was referred to as an “automobile plow”. While unpopular at first, these gasoline powered machines began to catch on. In the 1910, the size of the tractor was smaller than the earlier introductions and also became more affordable. In 1917, Henry Ford introduced the first mass-produced tractor. These were built in the U.S.A., Ireland, England and Russia. The unique feature of these tractor consisted of the strength of the engine holding the entire machine together. By 1920, tractors with a gasoline powered internal combustions engine had become a norm.

1.3. History in India

The level of mechanization in Agriculture was very low at the time of independence in 1947. But, the initial few five-year plans implemented by the Government of India gave an impetus to the improvement in the production and productivity of major crops including mechanization via joint ventures and tie-ups between local industrialists and international tractor manufacturers. It was three decades after independence that the domestic production of 4-wheel tractors grew slowly. In 1990, the tractor production was nearly 2,70,000 units per year and by the 2013, the volume approached to about 6,96,000 units per year. India has presently overtaken the United States as the world’s largest producer of four-wheel tractors with over 16 national and 4 multinational corporations engaged in its production. But still the Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that from out of the total agricultural area, less than 50% is under-mechanized land preparation. This indicates that potential for large tractorization still exists. Credit facilities for farmers have been improving steadily over the years. This is one of the prime drivers of the sale of tractor in India.

In today’s innovation driven economies, turning a great idea or new technology into something investors want to fund takes careful planning. This process is called investor readiness. which means making sure the idea works, has a market, and is presented in a way that makes investors feel confident. Therefore, Investor readiness means the preparedness of an innovation to attract and secure investment from potential investors. It has all the essential parameters in place that an investor would evaluate before deciding to invest. For inventors, this means showcasing innovation’s business potential, potential for growth, and the capability to provide a return on investment. Understanding investor readiness is important because it directly influences scalability and growth of invention. Even the most innovative ideas can struggle to find the financial benefits without showcasing business potential.
Why it is important to discuss investor readiness
Investor readiness is the state in which a technology, its value proposition, and its founding team are significantly prepared to engage with securing funding from potential investors. Without investor readiness, even high-potential innovations may fail to reach the market due to gaps in business clarity, legal assurance, or team maturity. TTOs play an important role in this process by acting as intermediaries between inventor and investors. Modern day TTOs are more inclined to prepare technologies and associated teams to attract investment. This expanded mandate of TTOs and brought in investor readiness. It requires a wellstructured approach focused on aligning academic innovations with investor expectations. TTOs help in creating this readiness by guiding researchers through commercial pathways, derisking technologies, and translating technical advancements into investment suitable.

Artificial brainpower (Artificial Intelligence) is quite possibly of the quickest developing innovation in this cutting edge world. Artificial intelligence is presently broadly utilized in different enterprises going from the improvement of mechanical technology to the observing of natural issues. Computer based intelligence innovation has evident extensions in medical services gadgets, self driving vehicles, satellite imaging, scene planning, Climate change checking, also medical services frameworks. Artificial intelligence has heightened the improvement of mechanical technology across the globe that has made the life very simpler and added to a greatly improved existence of prosperity. Artificial intelligence interceded robot of a few areas including farming will create great quality items with more positive effects on Climate. Artificial intelligence utilizes various Smart sensors that cycle information progressively with higher precision. Consequently, Artificial intelligence has upgraded the presentation of any gadget to a few folds with more prominent reasonableness and Precision in their results. Computer based intelligence with Smart sensors has lead to the improvement of a cutting edge innovation called as Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is center of remote frameworks and Artificial intelligence manages information progressively and creates suitable results. This innovation has been taken on in pretty much every area of science and examination. IoT based advanced advancements can possibly create inventive models for improved creation of buyer items including agro-items.
Agriculture is fundamental piece of people local area. It is overhauled with time to increment rural production. Present day advancements has additionally been utilized in farming, agriculture, also ranger service for better observing of plant development, sicknesses, and bug populace. Artificial intelligence and IoT have various expanding extensions in farming to settle different issues such as soil conditions, Climate status, bother discovery, assurance of collecting time, etc. Likewise computer based intelligence and IoT offers fantastic extensions for continuous observation of temperature, dampness, contamination, soil quality, water content, radiation, and others. Brilliant

H orticultural crops are most important ones incurring huge amount of pesticides in our country. The intensity of esticides on them is highest per unit area. However research on integrated pest management has not matched the progress and problems of plant protection at large and protected cultivation in particular. The USA, UK, Israel and Russia, pioneers in protected cultivation, are able to harvest productivity of up to 500 tonnes/ha of tomato and 200 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum, while in India up to 300 tonnes/ha of tomato and 100 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum are obtained, has compared to normal open field where their yield ranges from 40 to 60 and 10 to 20 tonnes/ha in India, respectively.

The sustainability of an agro-ecosystem is represented by its ability to maintain a given level of productivity over time and a given quantitative-qualitative level of environmental resources (Loucks, 1977). The greenhouse is also a form of agro-ecosystem, where unlike other agro-ecosystems, environment has been adapted to crop in order to maximize its productivity. The greenhouse system has to take maximum advantage of natural benefits offered by location in certain latitudes while minimizing the disadvantages (Castilla, 2002). Higher productivity under such protected cultivation is attainable mainly on account of reduced competition, healthy environment, better nutrient management, increased surface area and longer crop duration. However, ideal and stable environment with warm, humid and abundant food under protected conditions provides an excellent platform for pest development often more than open field crops, leading to severe pest situations in greenhouses, as revealed by extensive surveys.

Abstract

Majority of basic research in our country has foundations in Universities and various Institutions linked to them. This paves way for discovering wilder varieties of the present known cereals and other food crops. Such findings help in bioprospecting the required gene/genetic material for the improvement of the existing crops. As per the Biodiversity Act of 2002, it is the responsibility of these institutions to document the same. But, as research scientists are geared to meet the challenges? Being used to socialistic system from the days of Independence where knowledge generated was open to everyone or closed and kept under the mountains of files, the TRIPS agreement has come as a shock. But the true impact of it was realized in 1999-2000, when the patent amendments were taken up. The private institution/ companies went into the act immediately.  We in the University neither were slow to react nor were we prepared to take the shock.  In this paper some of the problems pertaining to IPR and scenario of Indian Universities and Institutions in this regard were highlighted.

A. Precision irrigation

The prevalent flood irrigation in crops would be the thing of past because of limited water resources, waste of water in leaching and evaporation and cumbersome management resulting in considerable loss of water. The micro irrigation (sprinkler and drip- irrigation) are preferred depending on the field topography. Undulated fields are better irrigated by sprinkler and laser levelled field by drip irrigation. There are precise tools to deliver only required amount of water at different stages of growth of crops with the help of sensors. Irrigation water volume release is mechanised and automated. Efforts of using microirrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation have been made in last three decades in many parts of the world. There is no ideal irrigation method available which may be suitable for all weather conditions, soil structure and variety of crops cultures.

Precision irrigation is worldwide accepted concept in irrigation. Precision irrigation involves the accurate and precise application of water to meet the specific requirements of individual plants or management units and minimize adverse environmental impact. Commonly accepted definition of precision irrigation is sustainable management of water resources which involves application of water to the crop at the right time, right amount, right place and right manner thereby helping to manage the field variability of water in turn increasing the crop productivity and water use efficiency along with reduction in energy cost on irrigation. It utilizes a systems approach to achieve ’differential irrigation’ treatment of field variation (spatial and temporal) as opposed to the ’uniform irrigation’ treatment that underlies traditional management systems. Precise and regulated application of irrigation water and plant nutrients at low pressure and frequent intervals through drippers/emitters directly into the root zone of plant with the help of close network of pipes is known as drip irrigation system.

Water is one of the most critical resources in horticultural production, directly influencing plant growth, flowering, fruit development, and quality. This chapter introduces principles of irrigation scheduling, water requirements, soil–water relationships, and efficient water application. Surface, sprinkler, drip, micro-irrigation, fertigation, and other modern systems are discussed in relation to crop type and environmental conditions. The chapter emphasizes irrigation efficiency, root-zone moisture management, water quality, salinity, drainage, and conservation. Proper irrigation scheduling reduces water losses and prevents both drought stress and excessive wetness. Modern technologies such as sensors, automated irrigation, and precision fertigation are also considered important tools for sustainable horticultural water management.

1.1 Introduction

Like animals, plants are living beings and so require water and air for their survival. In addition, they need water for preparation of food by the process of photosynthesis. Majority of this water requirement of the crops is met from different forms of precipitation. However, when the water requirement is not fully met from precipitation, then growth of the crops is affected. This results in reduction of yield of the crops. The reduction in yield depends on the amount of scarcity of water requirement of the crops. It also depends on the stage of crop growth and also depends on the types of the crops. Generally all the crops are sensitive to water stress during reproductive stage. Water requirement of crops depend on many factors. It depends on the type of crops, irrigation schedules practiced, soil texture, position of groundwater table below effective root zone of the crop and management practice followed in crop cultivation. The pulses, oilseeds, vegetables etc. which are also otherwise termed as dry land crops need less water compared to rice which is a water loving crops and perennial crops like sugarcane, banana etc.

Water requirement of crops is partly met by the upward flux of groundwater. The capillary rise of shallow water table in the form of upward flux helps in meeting the water requirement of crops to some extent. The upward flux depends on the type of the soil, effective root zone depth of the crop, depth of water table below effective root zone depth of the crop and potential gradient of soil moisture suction. If the soil is heavy like clay, effective root zone depth of the crop is more (deep rooted crop) and position of ground water table is near to ground level (shallow water table), then the upward flux is more.

An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source to the filled with minimum possible loss. The objective of the efficiency concept is to identify the nature of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.

Evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of irrigation water.

3.1 Introduction
Irrigation efficiency evaluates how effectively the water has been distributed for the purpose of crop production. Water is conveyed to crop field through canal water courses and channels. During this process considerable amounts of water get lost through run off, deep percolation, evaporation, etc. The losses of water greatly depend on the skill of the irrigator, degree of land preparation, and design and planning of the system. The extent of water losses starting to diversion of water from its source to crop field though conveyance and ultimate application and distribution of water in crop field which can be estimated separately. The estimation of these efficiencies enables one to identify the step(s) where improvement is required. The method of measurement and evaluation for its efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of water. Irrigation efficiency in developing countries in general is poor particularly in gravity irrigation methods. However, water is become more and more scarce. Due to pressing need of it judicious and efficient management is one of the vital issues to be solved on priority basis.

Q. 1 When flow parameters change with time but remain constant with space the flow is called as:-
(A) Unsteady uniform flow       (B) Steady uniform flow
(C) Steady non-uniform flow   (D) Unsteady non-uniform flow

5.1. Irrigation requirement of field crops