eChapters

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of India as 50% of its work is engaged in agricultural activities enabling India self-sufficiency in food production. However, agriculture sector is facing several challenges such as reduction in arable land due to urbanization and industrialization, decrease in farm size due to family division, climate change, yield loss due to abiotic and biotic stresses like pest, disease and weed, proliferation of non-genuine/illegal agro-chemicals etc (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2019). FAO estimates that a total annual loss of 20 to 40 percent of global crop production due to pests. Each year, plant diseases cost the global economy around $220 billion, and invasive insects around US$70 billion. While in India, yield loss to crops is estimated as 26, 20, 6 and 8% by insects, plant pathogens, rodents and others, respectively with an annual loss of Rs. 2,25,000 crores annually. Traditionally, ITKs have been practiced by farmers to control pests based on three categories viz., (a) cultural practices, physical, mechanical methods and use of botanicals. Later, IPM has been implemented in various crops to curb such losses caused by biotic stresses. Although cultural, mechanical and biological control strategies are in practice, insecticide application has been the most widely used tactics to reduce such losses to achieve quick control and particularly in case of outbreaks/upsurges. In India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). First generation insecticides such as sulphur, arsenic, calcium arsenate, copper acetoarsenite, hydrogen cyanide, lead were introduced during 1950’s which are simple, persistent, usually very toxic chemicals used in large scale which harm almost everything they come into contact with. Later second generation insecticide molecules like DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids have been introduced with few advantages over first generation molecules. Subsequently, insect growth regulators (IGRs) that mimic insect growth hormones preventing natural young insect moulting which are less harmful to mammals have been introduced. Then, during past decades, newer insecticide molecules have been introduced which are target specific, relatively safe to non-target organisms and low residual activity. In terms of pesticide production and consumption, India is the fourth largest user of pesticides in the world (FAOSTAT, 2017). India is one of the lowest consumer i.e. 0.5 kg/ha (0.06 mt) of pesticides in the world as compared to China (13.06/ha), Japan (11.85 kg/ha), Brazil (4.57 kg/ha) etc. The United Nations has declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). The main aim is to raise global awareness on how protecting plant health can help end hunger, reduce poverty, protect the environment, and boost economic development. FAO estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. This leaves millions of people without enough food to eat and seriously damages agriculture - the primary source of income for rural poor communities. .

Introduction

Disaster may be defined as a sudden event that causes damage to life, property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. It could be of natural or anthropogenic origin. Disasters impact the poor and the most vulnerable section of the community. Over the past 30 years, more than 2.5 million people and nearly $4 trillion have been lost to natural disasters in India; globally the losses jumped from $50 billion a year in the 1980s to $200 billion in the last decade (NIDM, 2019).According to a World Bank report, nearly 75% of the losses are attributable to extreme weather events and climate change threatening to push an additional 100 million people into the extreme poverty by 2030 (Hallegatte et al., 2016). The Bank’s Unbreakable report finds that natural disasters had larger and long-lasting impacts on the poverty. Population growth and rapid urbanization are major driving factors for an increase in the disaster risks.

The United Nations estimates that more than two-thirds of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050 (NIDM, 2019). This could put 1.3 billion people and $158 trillion assets at risk from river and coastal floods alone. According to the Bank’s Investing in Urban Resilience report (2016), by 2030, without significant investment into making cities more resilient, natural disasters may cost cities worldwide $314 billion each year.

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the Sun and the Earth’s surface, and radiate it back to Earth’s atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect. Gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) occur in traces but play crucial roles in controlling the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere. The natural as well as anthropogenic activities have major impacts on the GHGs emissions that include continuously increasing concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere. The heat-trapping properties of these above mentioned GHGs are well established. Different GHGs have different warming potential (radiative forcing) on the global climate system due to their different radiative properties and lifetimes in the atmosphere. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs modify the energy equilibrium of the climate system which leads to subsequent climate change. They affect the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface. Globally agriculture is estimated to account for 10%–20% of anthropogenic GHG emissions (Smith and Olesen 2010). Share of contribution of these gases towards global warming are different such as CH₄ 20-25%, CO₂ 40-50% and N₂O 5-10%; with present pace of increment every year 0.41, 0.42 and 0.25%, respectively IPCC, 2019.

Introduction

Today, according to Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement (GLADA), nearly one forth area of our world land has been degraded (Arora 2019). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is leading the issues of soil or land degradation to restore valuable natural resources for achieving a land degradation neutral world by 2030 (Cowie et al., 2018; IPBES, 2018; Bhattacharya, 2020). Land degradation neutrality (LDN) can be achieved primarily through adoption of sustainable land management practices. Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a multifunctional role and is sensitive to land management practices and a key indicator of soil quality, soil health and LDN. Soil is a major reservoir of terrestrial C in the biosphere and plays an important role in global C cycle. Therefore, a little change in SOC pool can significantly influence the atmospheric CO2 concentration. In general, 1 Pg of SOC stock is equivalent to about 0.47 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere, and vice versa (Lal, 2018). Besides this it maintains overall soil sustainability and enhances food security.

Achieving carbon neutrality in Indian soils is a major challenge. Because, productive land goes out of cultivation and marginal or degraded land comes under cultivation due to urbanization, industrialization and various development activities. Also, it is very difficult to increase SOC because climatic condition prevails with a high rate of decomposition. According to an UN report, India will be the most populated country in the world and expected to add 273 million people between 2019 and 2050 which will exert huge pressure on natural resources, particularly soil and water to fulfil the increasing food demands of such ever-growing population. The extensive use of natural resources along with intensive cultivation will enhance greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, slow down agricultural productivity, enhance land degradation, and decline factor productivity of major production systems. Due to change in distribution of rainfall and concurrent rise in temperature owing to climate change, the fertile top soil becomes more prone to degradation.

Introduction

Climate change effect is global and one of the most pressing issues of the 21^st century. It has now emerged as a significant global environmental challenge affecting crop, animal, fish, egg and milk production, water availability, human health, and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Evidences of changes in climate, particularly to the spatial and temporal variability of precipitation and temperature are many and as a result, uncertainty, risks and farmers distress have increased manifold over the current years. India, a developing nation and primarily an agriculturally based country will be highly affected due to greater dependence on agriculture for livelihood of larger proportion of population (Johnson and Hutton, 2014). Anthropogenic forces like rise in population, economic activities, consumption patterns, social behaviour, energy resource utilization and land-use changes in terms of deforestation, use of fossil fuels, industrialization, and race towards development, high concentration of green house gases (GHG) has been released resulting in global warming, a major factor leading to climate change. This heat of climate change has been experienced globally and has affected all forms of life on earth in many ways (Campbell-Lendrum et al, 2015).

As per the fifth assessment report of IPCC (2014), proportional sharing in GHGs emission of various sectors are energy production (34%), and agriculture, forestry and land-use (AFOLU) (24%), mainly contributed by biomass burning and resource intensive agronomic activities (Houghton et al., 2012; Tubiello et al., 2015). Global food security has been threatened by climate change more so in developing nations through changes in soil properties, and is one of the most important challenges in the 21^st century to supply food for the increasing population.

Since climate change is inevitable, we must consider how best we can adapt it, so as to minimize its harmful consequences on the society. For subsistence farmers in India, adaptation in response to changes in climate patterns can be the difference between survival and calamity. There is a need to bring innovations on climate smart agriculture and also necessary agricultural reforms for emerging of a self-reliant India.

Introduction

The arid regions in India occupy 38.7 million ha (Mha), comprising 31.7 and 7 Mha under hot and cold arid region, respectively. The major part (90%) of the hot arid region lies in Northwest (NW) India and the rest in geographically isolated pockets in South India. The NW arid region extends from 22°30” to 32°50” N and 68°50” to 75°45”E , bounded by Aravalli hills in the east, Thar desert in the west the irrigated Indus plain in the north and the alluvial plains of the Sabarmati river in the south. The region mostly lies in western Rajasthan covering 12 districts (196150 km², 68.7%) followed six districts in northwest Gujarat (62180 km² 21.8%), five districts in southwest Haryana in (12840 km² 4.5%), and six districts in southwest Punjab in (14510 km², 5.0%) (Fig.1). The region is characterized by low rainfall (100 to 400 mm yr-1), that is also erratic and highly unpredictable (coefficient of variation, CV = 30 to 70%); high evaporation (1600 to 2000 mm yr-1); temperature extremes (-5.7° C to 50°C); frequent droughts (once in 2.5-5.0 years); strong winds (20-50 km h-1) during summer; and short crop growing period (8 to 15 weeks) (Moharana et al., 2016). Despite the common characteristics of aridity and extremes of temperatures, there are enormous spatial variations in terms of rainfall pattern, physiography, soils, amount of available surface and ground water, and extent of vegetation cover (Joshi, 2012). Accordingly, the NW hot arid region has been classified in 4 sub-regions, 11 zones and 34 sub zones (Faroda et al., 1999).

Despite these intimidating conditions, the region supports a large human and livestock population and biodiversity. However, the ever-increasing human and livestock population and developmental activities exert enormous biophysical pressure on the slender natural resource base of the region. A major challenge is desertification due to wind erosion/deposition, water erosion, water logging and salinity. Degradation of permanent pastures has led to loss of fodder resources constraining livestock husbandry, the backbone of the economy of the region. Of late, industrial effluents and mining are also contributing to desertification.

The introduction of high yielding varieties, additional irrigation facilities, a great input flow through fertilizers and pesticides, farm mechanization, credit facilities and other rural infrastructure facilities ushered in the green revolution. The food grains area under irrigation as a percentage to its total sown area has been increased from 20.9 to 51.2%, rice irrigated area from 36.5 to 58.3%, wheat from 43.1 to 93.4%, pulses from 9.4 to 18.6%, oilseeds from 3.7 to 28.6% during the period from 1965-66 to 2013-14 (DES, 2015). Despite the net sown area being stagnant around 140.80 M ha, gross cropped area has been increased significantly from 155.28 M ha in 1965-66 to 195.25 M ha in 2011-12 due to increase in net irrigated area from 26.34 to 65.26 M ha (Fig. 1), gross irrigated area from 30.90 to 91.53 M ha during the period. There has been a sharp decline in average size of operational land holdings. The scope for expansion of the area available for cultivation has become limited. The average size of holdings for all operational classes (small & marginal, medium and large) have declined over the years and for all classes put together it has come down to 1.16 ha in 2010-11 from 2.28 ha in 1970-71. Therefore, it is the urgent need to use the natural resource like water efficiently and in a sustainable manner.

Introduction

In the post-world trade organization (WTO) era, the fantastic imagination of “one world for self-reliance”, has been shattered by the Corona induced calamity and the expansionists approach of a few rouge nations. Though the global welfare and peace has always been part of Indian traditional philosophy, approach and the concept of self-reliance, the practical boundary of self-reliance in its present context, starts from the country level itself. The idea of self-reliance at multiple levels (individual, family, society, and nation) has driven human civilization for most of its efforts, inventions and actions across the world.

A very high dependency of a large number of population on the natural resources in the developing world calls for proper management of natural resources for self-reliance. Since the early days of civilization, natural resources in the form of land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate have remained the very basis of supporting and sustaining life of human beings, plants and animals on the earth. However, in recent times intensive use and over-exploitation of pristine resources have robbed them of their legendry resilience. To effectively tackle the complex problems and to fulfil basic needs of livelihood, food security, poverty, employment, equity and environmental services, efficient and judicious utilization of natural resources for enhanced and sustained productivity is a matter of serious concern for policy makers, planners, scientists, conservationists and environmentalists.

Edible oil scenario

Vegetable oil or edible oil is the main source of energy in humans and it also supplies nutrients for growth and maintenance of human body. Edible oil demand in India has been increasing progressively since last one decade, primarily due to population growth, improved standard of living and also changes in food habits. Presently, the area under oil seed production is between 26 and 27 million ha with an average yield of 1000 to 1100 kg ha^-1. This accounts to 7.5 to 8.0 million tonnes of vegetable oil production locally, as against the current demand of 22.5 to 23 million tonnes per annum.

Introduction

It is known and well documented that ‘biological diversity’ (i.e. diversity within species, between species and within ecosystems) has been declining at a much faster rate than earlier time in human history. The current rate of extinction is tens to hundred times higher than the average over the past 10 million years and it is accelerating (IPBES, 2019). The estimates of the number of species getting extinct every year vary from low (200 to 2,000) to high (10,000 and 100,000) (Bar-On et al., 2018). The delicate balance of clean air, water and biodiversity in nature which helps in survival on earth, is rapidly being destroyed due to humans’ activity like growing of food, producing energy, dispose of waste and consume resources (IPBES, 2019). The current human population of the world (7.6 billion) represents only 0.01% of all living creatures and attributed to be instrumental in causing loss of 83% of all wild mammals and half of plants (IPBES, 2019). These unprecedented changes in important components of biodiversity are likely to continue or increase in the foreseeable future, unless we take active corrective measures (IPBES, 2019).

Whilst all biodiversity has intrinsic economic or social value, it is the ‘agricultural biodiversity’ (‘agrobiodiversity’ in short) that has the greatest importance for food nutrition and health security of humans. The FAO has recently defined biodiversity for food and agriculture (BFA) as a subset of biodiversity that contributes primarily to agriculture and food production (FAO, 2019). It includes the domesticated plants and animals raised in crop, livestock, forest and aquaculture systems, harvested forest and aquatic species, the wild relatives of domesticated species, other wild species harvested for food and other products. It also encompasses “associated biodiversity”

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. Good harvest helps in moving the economy in the right direction. The agriculture sector accounts for 17% of US$ 2.6 trillion economy of India (Anonymous, 2019a) and employs 54.6% of the country’s workforce (Anonymous, 2019b). India occupies first place in the production of pulses, jute and milk, and second place in rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, vegetables and fruits (FAO STAT, 2020). The agriculture export constitutes a fifth of total exports made by India and self-reliance in agriculture is required to become an economic superpower. The green revolution has paved the way from begging bowl to overflowing granaries in our country. The overall food production has increased from 52 MT in 1950-51 to 295 MT in 2019-20, which is a phenomenal growth of more than five times in seven decades span. Of the several factors that influenced the sea change in agriculture production and productivity, the quality seed of improved varieties occupies a crucial position. The green revolution was ushered in by the import of 18000 tonnes of seed of high yielding wheat varieties Lerma Rojo and Sonara 64 and rice variety IR-8. Till today, the quality seed alone contributes to 15-20% of total production (Chauhan et al., 2015), indicating its importance in agricultural production of the country. The problematic global scenarios like economic recession, climate change, water scarcity, population explosion, pollution or new pandemics drives the states to be more self-reliant. To be self-reliant is not to be altogether “self-contained”. We should be opened for the best material available anywhere in the world, and simultaneously we should develop our infrastructure and industry to cater to the needs of our population as well as export to other countries. Seed sector is one of the potential areas for boosting self-reliance as well as has a lot of export potential. The government push for self-reliance under the present COVID-19 pandemic situation by infusing INR one lakh crore as agricultural infrastructure fund that will help in developing several start-ups. The success of this movement mainly depends on innovations in every sector, including the seed sector and simultaneously, there is a need to extend it to the regulatory mechanisms. This chapter will discuss the possible areas of innovations that are already in the pipeline and those to be targeted in the areas of seed production, quality assurance, marketing and regulation along with policy interventions needed to boost the seed sector.

Introduction

India has progressed well on food production from 51 million tonnes (mt) in 1947, 286 mt in 2018-2019 owing to the largest contribution from wheat and rice (about 213 mt). But simultaneously our population has also grown to about 135 billion in 2018. Therefore, the impact of higher production is not realized in absolute terms. Indian agriculture has come a long way since independence achieving food security in major crops, declining rate of rural poverty, rise in agricultural incomes and nutrition levels have gone up. Higher production has also been recorded in sugar, cotton, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, milk, fisheries and poultry. All this has made us a proud with achieving self-sufficiency in food security. However, on the socio-economic front, the picture does not become rosy as we have a lower strength of socio-economic development indicators even among developing countries. Still the reports of under nourishment, hunger and poverty rings the bell. However, the importance of agriculture cannot be negated because it provides sustenance to mankind, food and employment to all. Considering the emerging challenges of climate change impacting agricultural productivity and increasing variability, poor investment in research, skill development of farmers, post-harvest losses etc. New strategies and innovations in agriculture, particularly on the development of climate resilient varieties with high productivity and better nutritive quality are called for, which has to be led by structural reforms and infrastructural augmentation.

Introduction

India is one of the agriculturally important countries in the world and has strong net-work of agriculture education, research and extension. As per the historical record India is committed to thrive and excel independently. During 1965–66, India imported food grains from the US under PL-480 scheme, and the situation was “ship-to-mouth”. This condition was also exacerbated with the growing population which made India to increase its food production at most priority with commitment. With the introduction of high yielding semi dwarf varieties of rice from IRRI, The Philippines and wheat from Mexico which combined with right policies of government to provide essential inputs and market facilities, credit etc. revolutionized the Indian agriculture. In addition to these innovative ideas and policies the food production reached to the level of self-sufficiency until today. For instance the food production during 1950-51 was 54 million tonnes and reached to 285 million tonnes during 2018-19. After the fourth five year plan, India made its stand of self-sufficiency even affected by any year of worst drought. Later, the focus had been given on agricultural research and education in the country for sustaining self-sufficiency in agriculture sector at all times of change of conditions within the country and also globally. Although more than 65 per cent of rural population is depend on agriculture sector, the average monthly income is about Rs. 6500. It reveals that under employment and large population in India depend on agriculture which is unsustainable (Rena, 2003). Therefore, it is needed to books the rural economy, create new infrastructure and other innovations in this sector. India has been emphasizing for innovative techniques. The main advantage for India is the richest natural resources and need only planning and execution on innovation front.

Introduction

Over the past decades, agriculture sector played a crucial role in enhancing the economic growth of India, and will continue so in future. It employs 55% of the workforce, thereby contributing to 17.1% of the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) for the year 2017-18 (MoA & FW, 2019). Agricultural production in India grew at an average of 3.6% annually since 2011, thanks to the policy decisions on inputs including improved fertilizer delivery systems and high yielding varieties. Release of improved varieties in cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables and ornamental flowers as well as high-yielding breeds in the livestock and fisheries sectors has increased the diversification. Availability of a range of nutrition rich food commodities played crucial role in reducing undernourished population from 24% in 1990-92 to 15% in 2014-16 (OECD, 2018, FAO statistics). India is currently the largest product export economy of the world. India is leading exporter of rice globally, amounting to 8.34 Mt in 2019, and currently holds >85% of global basmati rice exports. The country has shown massive resilience to very recent global outbreak of COVID-19, and managed to tackle the social and economic challenges with a spirit of self-reliance. The ‘Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ by Government of India with a special economic package of Rs 20 lakh crore to enable the resurgence of the economy through three mantras, ‘innovation, integrity and inclusion’ as suggested by none other than the Hon’ble Prime Minister of the country. It is therefore imperative that the agricultural sector too needs new initiatives to continue with the success, and realize the potential of self-reliance.