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A series of efforts have been made to initiate the work on post-harvest grain technology in India. H.M. Lefroy, the 1^st Imperial Entomologist appointed by the British Government in India in 1905 had given a tentative list of storage insects in 1906. This list of storage insects was further supplemented by T.B. Fletcher in 1914. The problems of grain storage were discussed at Pusa, Bihar at the Entomological meetings held during the years 1917, 1919 and 1923.

The Department of Food was established in 1942 by the Government of India. The executive wing of the Food Department was responsible for the purchase, movement, transport and distribution of food grains. Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) at Mysore was established in 1950 with a mandate to train personnel and evolve technology relating to food processing and preservation. The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up on 2^nd March, 1957 under Agricultural Produce (Warehousing and Development) Act 1956. On 1^st January, 1965 Food Corporation of India was established.

In 1958, the Department of Food started a centre at Hapur known as Grain Storage Research and Training Centre with the main objective to train the personnel of State Government engaged in food procurement, storage and distribution. This centre was upgraded during 1968-1973 with the technical and financial assistance of UNDP and this centre was redesignated as Indian Grain Storage Institute (IGSI). Two field stations at Ludhiana and Bapatla (later shifted to Hyderabad in March 1979) were established in 1968-69. Subsequently, three stations of IGSI at Jabalpur (October, 1980), Udaipur (February, 1981) and Jorhat (May, 1981) were also established. The overall objective was to minimize losses of food grains by development of modernized grain storage practices for the farmers, traders, cooperatives and large storage of food grains in the country and also to evolve the methodology to be adopted by the Save Grain Compaign which has its headquarters in the Department of Food.

Insects are prevalent on this globe due to their varied adaptations and hence constitute the largest component of the animal kingdom. Only around 5 per cent of the total insect species, act as pests, rest either are beneficial like honey bees, lac insect, silk worms etc. or are harmless. Insect pests can be of medical, veterinary, house hold and agricultural importance, as these creatures harm our health, animals’ health, our belongings and also the agricultural health. Though all these components are equally important but, in this book, the last one i.e. agricultural health, have been taken into consideration. Insect pests cause around 20 per cent loss to our crops by directly or indirectly affecting the crops both quantitatively and qualitatively. The insects have different types of mouth parts which are used for sucking, biting and chewing, sponging and lapping, siphoning etc. for food required for their survival and the insects with sucking and biting, and chewing types of mouth parts cause much of the damage. The mites (Phylum Arthropoda) though do not belong to class Insecta but in some instances also are of economic importance as they cause economic damage to agricultural crops and produce.

Pesticides offer one of the best means of controlling plant diseases and pests and subsequently improving the yield. They have been used since the 19^th century. Pesticides, undoutly are poisonous and their indiscriminate use and abuse may result in ecological imbalance resulting in pest resurgence, aggravation of minor pest, pesticides resistance, environmental pollution, poising serious health hazards to man and animals. However, if used judiciously, following the guide line of Pesticide Action Network (PAN), such problems are not likely to occur, and instead improve crop yield. It is however unfortunate that many of us really lack the insight in Materia Medica of plant diseases and pests and most of the problems have occurred due to misuse and abuse of pesticides for which man is responsible and not the pesticides.

In insects nervous system is highly developed and serves to coordinate the activities of its various systems. Units of this system are known as neurons. Which carry information in the form of electrical impulses from external and internal sensilla (Sensory cells) to appropriate effectors e.g., glands, muscles and glail cells. Nervous system of insects may be divided into three parts.

1. Central nervous system
2. Sympathetic or visceral nervous system
3. Peripheral nervous system.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization designed to supervise and liberalize international trade. It was established on 1^st January 2005 and is responsible for making and enforcing rules for trade between nations. WTO marks a major change in global trade rules. As an organization, it replaces the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which had been in existence since 1947. The Eighth Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations under GATT, which started in Uruguay in 1986, was concluded in 1994, leading to the creation of WTO as the new permanent international trade organization. The role of WTO is much more extensive than that of GATT, which dealt with trade in goods. Apart from goods, the two other broad areas that WTO covers are services and intellectual property, which previously belonged to the domestic domain. Accordingly, WTO administers not only the Multilateral Trade Agreements (MTAs) in goods but also the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which came into existence with WTO. All the agreements annexed to the Agreement establishing the WTO were signed as part of a package deal. Member countries did not have the option of choosing some and rejecting others. Another important difference with the erstwhile GATT is that WTO has a stronger compliance mechanism than did GATT-a member’s failure to meet the obligations can invoke retaliation across agreements and sectors.

Taxonomic keys are devices that make identification of taxa easy and enjoyable. A key is presentation of appropriate diagnostic characters in a series of attractive choices to facilitate identification of a specimen.

Key characters are the characters that are easily perceived of very low variability, usually present in preserved material. They are useful as convenient labels for distinguishing taxa by the process of classification. Many taxonomic characters such as chemical, chromosomal, physiological and behavioural may have high value of identification because they are inaccessible in preserved material. Ideal key characters apply equally to all individuals of the population. They are absolute, relatively constant and external so that they can be observed directly without special equipment.

The name Lepidoptera derived from the Greek words “lepido” meaning Scale and “ptera” meaning wings refers to the flattened hairs (Scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults. Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies) is the second largest order (1.10 lakh sp.) in the class insecta, characterized by the body, wings and appendages being generally covered densely with pigmented scales which provide the colour pattern of the characteristic of the species and play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Adults

• Head: Hypognathus and relatively small.

• Compound eyes are large and set well apart. Ocelli two in number in moths or reduced to Chaetosoma in butterfly.

• Mouthparts form a coiled tube (Proboscis) beneath the head.

• Antennal type:

• Butterflies: Clubbed, clavate, capitate.

• Moths: Pectinate (Uni/Bi).

• Adults have siphoning type mouthparts except in micropterygidae (Mandibulate mouthparts). Front wings large, triangular, hindwings large, fan shaped.

• Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scale.

• Thoracic segments are fused and metathorax is the largest and most prominent.

• Wings covered with scales. Androconia (Plumules) on upper surface of wings in some males serves as outlet for odouriferous glands. are fringed distally with each tip finely divided. • Wing coupling apparatus variable (generally Frenulum and retinaculum or Amplexiform type)

Litchi, Litchi chinensis, is one of the important fruit crops of South East Asia and Australian Continent. The crop thrives well in sub-tropical areas experiencing cool dry winters and warm wet summers. India and China are the major producers of litchi in the world. In India, Bihar, Uttarakhand and West Bengal contribute maximum in litchi production. Few major insect pests and mites are of concern, the details of which are as under:

Red rust, Eriophyid mite, Aceria litchii Keifer (Eriophyidae: Prostigmata) and red rust alga, Cephaleuros virescens Kunze (Trentepholiaceae: Trentepohliales)

Locusts are injurious to man as it destroys several human commodities. Locusts are phytophagous and feed on several plants cultivated by man. The locusts are insects belonging to the order orthoptera. The most popular insect is grasshopper. The only difference between the two types of insects is that locust can exist in two different behavioural states whereas grasshoppers do not. When the population density is low locusts behave as individuals, much like grasshopper. As the population density is high locusts gregariously behave as band of nymphs or swarms of adults. The changes in body shape and colour and in fertility, survial and migratory behaviour are accompanied by phase change. The most important locust species is the desert locust (Schistocerca-gregaria). The international pest influences various parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Other locust species are highly injurious to mainkind like Bombay locust and Indian migratory locust (Locusta- migratoria) found all over India in its solitary phase. The monsoon months in July and August suitable are for locust multiplication conditions. The new generation produced migrate eastward into the Indian desert areas in May and June.

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays Linn) is the most widely distributed crop of the world. It adapts easily to a wide range of production environments and is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. It holds a unique position in world agriculture ranking third after rice and wheat in terms of area as well as production. In India too, it is the third most important cereal crop and is cultivated in 8. 17 m ha (2007-08) area. It contributes nearly 8% to the national food basket and more than Rs 100 billion to agricultural gross domestic products with an annual production of 19. 73 million tons. It is used as a source of human food (24%) animal feed (11%), poultry feed (52%), starch (11%), brewery and seed (1% each). In India it is largely grown in Northern states where it serves as an important staple food for an economically vulnerable population of submountainarean and hilly regions.

American Ecologist Whittaker (1969) proposed the five kingdom system of classification. In his ‘Five Kingdom System’, he added three more kingdoms in to Linnean model of two kingdom system. These were: Monera, Protista and Fungi. Whittaker succeeded to overcome the difficulties as well as demerits of two, three and four kingdom systems and to represent the living organisms according to the evolutionary relationships among themselves. He also defined the kingdoms by a number of special characteristics such as whether the organisms possessed a true nucleus or not. Whittaker’s five kingdom system of classification is based on (a) mode of nutrition (b) cell structure and complexity (c) phylogenetic relationship (d) body organization and (e) reproduction.

The large branches within the Animal Kingdom evolutionary tree are ‘phyla’ (the singular being ‘phylum’). ‘Animal phyla’ outlines thirty three phyla, although there are still disputes and disagreements concerning how many phyla are needed to classify the less well-known species. The most easily recognised are Porifera, Cnidaria, Arthropoda, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Platyhelminthes, Echinodermata, and Chordata. Animal phyla each comprise a branch of the evolutionary tree and these branches are always connected to other branches.

Mango, Mangifera indica is indigenous to India and ranks at number one as for as production and export are concerned. The productivity of mango in India is low (6.6MT/ha) and one of the reasons for the same is pests associated with the crop at varying stages of the tree growth. Around 175 insect pests have been reported to infest mango but only few are the major pests the details of which re provided hereunder:

Mango hopper, Idioscopus clypealis (Lethiery); I. niveosparsus (Lethiery); Amritodus atkinsoni (Lethiery) (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera) Hoppers constitute one of the most destructive pests of mango throughout the country. The eggs are dull white and concealed inside tissue. The colour of the nymphs vary from dust yellow to pale yellow and these nymphs walk in a crab like manner. The adults are small wedge shaped grayish insects measuring3.4-5.1mm in length. Amritodus atkinsoni is comparatively bigger and light brown in colour with two spots on scutellum, while Idioscopus clypealis is smallest and lighter in colour with dark spots

To elevate natural beekeeping from a basic subsistence activity to a sustainable and profitable venture, strong marketing approaches and entrepreneurial drive are essential. These elements enable producers to expand their customer base, enhance the value of their offerings, and establish distinctive brands that reflect the purity and ecological integrity of their products.

There is increasing interest in natural bee products both within India and globally, fueled by heightened consumer awareness around health, sustainability, and eco-friendly lifestyles. Beekeepers must identify and understand their core markets—ranging from local health-conscious buyers and organic stores to international importers—and align their product presentation, packaging, and positioning to meet specific consumer preferences. Conducting market research can help pinpoint specialized segments like organic-certified honey, therapeutic propolis, or royal jelly supplements.

Entrepreneurial opportunities go beyond harvesting raw honey. Value addition can take many forms: creamed or infused honey, honeycomb packs, artisanal beeswax candles, cosmetic products made with propolis, or balms infused with bee-derived ingredients. Packaging innovations, sustainability certifications, and appealing brand narratives further enhance consumer trust and market differentiation. Diversifying products also helps minimize risk and stabilize income.

Crops treated with pesticides invariably contain small amount of these chemicals and the hazard depends on the amount of pesticide residues that remain on the crop and their toxicity. The amount of residue that may remain on crop or food commodity and environmental commodities depend on the nature of pesticides, good agricultural practice, environmental conditions and adoption of safe waiting periods and other perfect methods of storage. As residues are inevitable by product of pesticide use, hence pesticide residue in food commodities and their entry in to food chain has become major cause of concern all over the world. The plant science industry has a responsibility to assist farmers to produce crops that are acceptable to the food chain and consumers alike.

It is clear that pesticide residues in farm produce should be kept as low as practicable, and eliminated whenever possible through Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). However, the use of pesticides can be regulated to ensure minimum residues on food which can be considered safe to human consumption and environment as a whole.

To regulate pesticide residues to safe levels, a concept was introduced by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (1955) and Codex Alimentarius Commissionwas established in 1964 to implement the Joint FAO/ WHO Food Standard Programmes. The Commission has laid down principles for aiming at the maximum residue limits (Tolerance limits) of pesticide on food commodities. The recommendations are based on:

Thank you, Dr Tikoo, for a nice introduction and thanks to ATPBR for inviting me to deliver this WebCon. I would like to start with a small introduction that this particular talk is structured as a general introduction to thrips and thrips-transmitted viruses. There is a bit of interest in everyone with regard to the black thrips which has caused havoc in the last couple of years. The topic has significant importance to plant breeders with regard to the new invasive Western Flower thrips, one of the most dreaded thrips, across the globe and the problems associated with the management of resistance in protected cultivation, and, finally how do we go about with regard to the entire management of the thrips and thrips-transmitted virus problems.

Insects development

Once an insect hatches from the egg it is usually able to survive on its own, but it is small, wingless, and sexually immature. Its primary role in life is to eat and grow. If it survives, it will periodically outgrow and replace its exoskeleton (a process known as molting). In many species, there are other physical changes that also occur as the insect gets older (growth of wings and development of external genitalia, for example). Collectively, all changes that involve growth, molting, and maturation are known as morphogenesis.

Metamorphosis

• Metamorphosis actually means change in form Metamorphosis is derived from Greek word ‘Meta’ = Change, ‘morph’ = form or structure.

• The changes in the development from egg to adult, collectively called Metamorphosis (life cycle).

• Post-embryonic changes in form are collectively called as metamorphosis.

• Metamorphosis refers to the way that insects develop, grow, and change form. Metamorphosis include three developmental processes namely growth, differentiation and reproduction which takes place in larval, pupal and adult stages, respectively.

• Majority of insects pass through profound metamorphosis. The growth of an immature insect is accompanied by a series of molts or ecdysis, in which the cuticle is shed off and renewed. The number of molts varies in most insects from 4-8. However some undergo as many as 20 or more molts. A few insects like Bristle tail silver fish (apterygota) may continue molting even after reaching the adult stage. But most of the insects neither molt nor increase in size once then adult stage is reached. The intervals between the ecdysis are called Stadia. The term instar is applied to form of an insect during stadium. In numbering the instar, the form assumed by the insect between hatching from the egg and the first post embryonic molt is termed “First Instar”.

Introduction

Plant protection in India is mainly based on use of pesticidal chemicals. Chemical control is one of the effective and quicker methods in reducing pest population where farmer gets spectacular results within a short time. However, indiscriminate use of pesticides results in a series of problems in the agricultural ecosystem mainly the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, resurgence of treated population, environmental contamination and residue hazards. Destruction of natural enemies of insect-pests, expenses on pesticides etc. contributed to a new way of thinking concerning pest control practices i.e. integrated approach of pest control. IPM was first proposed by Stern and his collegues for integration of biological and chemical control measures. This is not altogether a new concept; it was practiced before the advent of modern chemicals. The date of sowing the crop were carefully studied to ensure that crop was not being planted when it would encounter severe pest problems, cultural practices such as ploughing after harvest, timely weed control, well timed irrigation and reduced use of fertilizers all contributed to reduce pest population. Most of these methods were curtailed when modern pesticides become available it was thought that these chemicals alone could control pests, but now we know that this is not possible and a single method of approach in pest control is not feasible. An integrated approach of pest management (IPM) was devised on the principles of managing the pest rather than eradicating them. IPM is a broad ecological approach for managing pest problem encompassing available methods and techniques such as cultural, biological, mechanical and chemical in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain the pest problem below the economic injury level.

Introduction

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers, 1962, 1983, 1995, 2003). It is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. Dissemination is planned and directed diffusion of an innovation. In case of Integrated pest management which is a complex sort of decision making process, many technology transfer approaches were/are tried for dissemination of IPM technologies to farmers. These include radio, television, print media, training and visit, field days, demonstrations, extension field visits and participatory learning approaches like participatory technology development (PTD) and farmers field school (FFS). While Training and Visit (T&V) system failed, Farmers Field School (FFS) approach of educating farmers followed by ‘Community IPM’ activities and ‘Farmers to Farmer’ approach registered success in IPM implementation in developing countries (Matteson, 2000).

Solid formulations such as dust, wettable powder or granules, the active ingredient is mixed with inert material. The concentration is expressed as:

Active ingredient (%) in the total weight of commercial product.