eChapters

Ultra low volume spraying (ULV): The application of pesticides in extremely concentrated or undiluted form using 10 liters or less per hectare (1 gal per acre); highly concentrated pesticide applied without dilution at a rate of 0.5 gallons per acre or less.

Umbilical cord: The cord containing blood vessels supported by connective tissue that unites the embryo or fetus of a mammal with the mother during development in the uterus. (L. umbilicus = navel).

Ungulate: Having hoofs, as a deer or (L. ungula = hoof).

Unguligrade: Walking or adopted for walking on hoofs. (L. ungula = hoof + gradior = to step).

Ungue: Pretarsal claw.

Unguiculate: Having claws, as a cat. (L. unguis = claw).

Vagina: A pouch-like or tubular genital chamber of the female genitalia; external opening of the female reproductive system; or the terminus of the female reproductive tract that opens to the outside; or the terminal portion of the female reproductive tract which receives the copulatory organ of a male in mating (L. sheath).

Valid name: The name of a taxonomic category which is available nomenclaturally and also is recognized as valid on Zoological grounds (cf. Available name).

Valvar lamina: The posterior margin (usually prolonged posteriorly) of the eighth abdominal sternite (female Odonata).

Valve: In animals, any structure that limits or closes an opening; the thin folds in veins, lymph vessels, or hearts or the circular muscles about a tubular exit; also, either external shell of bivalve mollusk, brachiopod, or some crustaceans.

Valvifer (s): A basal sclerite of a valve of the ovipositor, articulating with the tergum; or proximal structures of the ovipositor that bear the valvulae; in female insect genitalia, derivations of gonocoxites 8 and 9, supporting the valves of the ovipositor.

Valvulae: Distal structures of the ovipositor borne on the valvifers; the three pairs of processes forming the sheath and piercing structures of the ovipositor.

Wettable powder (WP): An insecticide formulation consisting of finely ground solid particles of active ingredient plus inert carrier; forms a suspension when added to water.

Waggle dance: A communication dance of honey bees. A form of recruitment in the honey bee in which direction and distance to a food source are indicated.

Waiting period: See time interval.

Waiting period: The prescribed period between last application of a pesticide to crop and harvest.

Warble: The swelling on the host body caused by the larva of a warble fly.

Warm-blooded (Homoiothermous): Animals in which body temperature normally does not change with changes in atmospheric temperature e.g.birds and mammals.

Warning: Signal word used to designate a moderately toxic pesticide; oral LD₅₀ = 50 to 500 mg/kg body formulated.

Xerophyte: Plant adapted for survival in desert or physiologically dry soil.

Xylem: The water-conducting woody tissue in vascular plants.

Xylomycetophagy: Cultivation and feeding upon symbiotic fungi growing in woody tree tissues; for example, some Scolytidae.

Xylophage (adj. xylophagous): An eater of wood.

Xylophagy: Feeding on xylem tissues.

Yellow fever: An infectious, mosquito-transmitted viral disease.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique, developed by Kary Mullis in the 1980s, used in molecular biology to amplify and replicate a specific segment of the DNA (Mullis, 1990). This reaction in performed in a thermal cycler, involving three main steps: denaturation, annealing and extension.

Principle: PCR is based on the principle of selectively amplifying a specific region of DNA through a series of temperature-controlled cycles. The key components involved in PCR include the target DNA sequence, oligonucleotide primers, DNA polymerase enzyme (Taq DNA polymerase), deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTPs) (A, T, G, and C), Mg2+ and a thermal cycler apparatus. Initially, the double-stranded DNA is split into single strands under high temperature of 90-95 0C known as the denaturation step. It is followed by cooling the solution to a temperature that allows proper attachment of the oligonucleotide primers to its complementary sites in the strands, known as the annealing step.

Introduction

Plant pests have been a part of the man’s environment, since ages. Traditional agriculture which included diverse crops and indigenous crop management practices provided little opportunity for the pests to build up and spread rapidly (Smith and Allen,1954). Crop production is constantly threatened by increasing difficulties in controlling insect pests, which are a major impediment to improved livelihoods of the poor farmers. However, in the quest for increasing food production for the growing population, use of pesticides became a norm in crop management. Pesticides became an integral part of the process owing to losses from weeds, diseases and pests reducing the harvestable produce. Use of pesticides along with high yielding varieties, irrigation and improved seed did result in increased productivity. But the rampant use of these chemicals, under the adage, “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has played havoc with human and other life forms.

Similar to animals of the higher order, insects also possess all important internal systems of organs necessary for the proper performance of the various vital functions. The most important of the systems are the alimentary or digestive system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the reproductive system and the excretory system. The fundamental arrangement of the various organs is more or less similar in all insects and does not exhibit much remarkable variations as seen in the external morphological features. The dorsal blood vessel or heart runs along the median line immediately below the dorsal wall. The digestive system including the alimentary canal and its appendages lie in the middle, below the heart. The nervous chain lies below the alimentary canal and immediately above the ventral wall.

Introduction 
Chapter 12 explores the pivotal role of animal husbandry and veterinary sciences in managing livestock and ensuring food security while addressing global environmental challenges. The chapter covers various aspects of animal care, including livestock management, nutrition, health, and the broader implications of these practices on food security and climate change. The chapter begins with an examination of livestock management and production systems, focusing on the different systems used in animal husbandry, such as extensive, intensive, and semi-intensive systems. It highlights the principles of efficient livestock management and the need for sustainable practices to optimize productivity while minimizing environmental impact. Animal nutrition and feed management are crucial for maintaining livestock health and productivity. This section discusses the importance of formulating balanced diets that meet the nutritional needs of different animal species, the role of feed management in improving feed efficiency, and the impact of nutrition on animal health and production. Animal health and disease management are central to ensuring the well-being of livestock and preventing the spread of diseases. The chapter explores common animal diseases, methods for disease prevention and control, and the role of veterinary sciences in maintaining herd health and productivity. The importance of animal sciences, poultry science, fish science, and related disciplines in food security is addressed, emphasizing how advancements in these fields contribute to reliable and efficient food production. The chapter highlights how these sciences support the development of sustainable practices and technologies that enhance food security. The impact of these sciences on global warming is examined, focusing on both direct and indirect effects. The chapter discusses how livestock production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and explores strategies for mitigating these impacts through improved management practices and innovative technologies. Modern concepts in animal sciences, poultry science, and fish science are reviewed, showcasing recent advancements and their implications for sustainable livestock management and food security. The chapter discusses new approaches and technologies that are shaping the future of these fields

Antennae are paired, highly mobile, segmented appendages present between or below or behind the compound eyes. The antennae arise from the 2nd or antennal segment of the head possessing nerves coming from deutocerebrum of the brain. Antennae are absent in order protura and class Arachnida whereas 2 pairs of antenna (antennules) are present in class Crustacea.

Antennae are set in a socket of the cranium called antennal socket (anetnnifer) and connected by an articulatory membrane which allows free movement of antenna. Antennal socket is provided with an antennal suture. Although antennae vary widely in shape and function, all of them can be divided into three basic parts:

• Scape

• Basal segment, larger than other segments and articulates with the head capsule. It is provided with intrinsic muscles.

• Pedicel

• Second segment of antennae. In this, mass of cells called Johnston organ (auditory) is present (eg. houseflies). The above two segments have intrinsic muscles ie., their own muscles. In honey bee, wasps pedicel forms the pivot between scape and flagellum.

• Flagellum/Clavola

• The remaining segments or annuli or flagellomeres are called flagellum which lack individual muscles. Flagellum is supplied with many sensory receptors that are connected by nerves to brain. Flagellum is further divided into three parts

Introduction

The biological systems on the earth are in a dynamic equilibrium. In this attempt to live comfortably man disturbs this equilibrium in many, one of which is the cultivation of crop plants to meet his requirements for food, clothing and shelter. Intensive and extensive n of crop plants provides not only better crops but also better ties for pests and diseases to attack these crops. The greater loss due to the pests and diseases, the greater the attempt to these damages. Bacteria are one of the important disease since time immemorial. Bacteria are found in every ble habitat. They are unicellular, but display a variety of ‘cal forms.

The present investigation on the botanicals  has been aimed at preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium (Datura), Ricinus Castor), Vitex trifolia (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum (Kanher); the study concentration and stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-bacterial activities. This study will be helpful to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficiency of plant derived products.

Introduction

In man’s continued effort to enhance food production, new high yielding crop varieties and new techniques for crop and field management are being constantly evolved resulting in a parallel increase in disease occurrence which calls for their efficient management. Of the various management strategies available for disease management, the chemical strategies have so far dominated our thinking. Over emphasis on chemical control of plant diseases has caused serious imbalances in the agro-ecosystem^1-2.

The shift to exploration of non-chemical strategies is likely to correct the imbalance in our approach and subsequently improve the understanding of Integrated Disease Management (IDM). IDM is defined as ‘a disease management system that utilizes all suitable techniques in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain pest pathogen population at levels below those causing economic injury.’ Fungi are the important group of pathogens.

In continuation of our work on natural pest management agents the present investigation aims at the preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available four Indian medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium Linn (Datura), Ricinus communis Linn. (Castor), Vitex trifolia Linn. (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum Mill. (Kanher); study of stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-fungal potencies. This study will help to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficacy of natural products.

Antibiotics are substances which are produced by micro-organisms and which act against micro-organisms. It is also defined as secondary metabolites produced by microorganism, which inhibits the growth of another microorganism. Most antibiotics known uptill now are products of actinomycetes and some are from fungi and bacteria. The use of the antibiotics in managing plant diseases, particlulaty the disease caused by bacteria, mycoplasma and ricketsia, is well demonstrated and are thought to be effective means because of their selective action directed towards causal agents not to the infected host. The mode of action of the antibiotics varies depending on site of action which in turn detrmines their specificity towards given target host (Table 12). Some time mixture of antibiotics are in practice in managing the diseases to reduce delay the chances of resistance development against a particular antibiotic by the causal agent. The most useful antibiotic mixture is streptocycline, which contains streptomycin and tetracycline.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry, Emblica officinalis is indigenous to Indian sub-continent. India ranks first in the world in area and production of this crop. Aonla is mainly cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh etc. It performs well even in the wastelands. Aonla is a plant of great medicinal value and its fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. It has acrid, cooling, diuretic and laxative properties. Dried fruits are useful in hemorrhages, diarrhoea, dysentery, anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Aonla is used in the indigenous medicines (Aurvedic system) viz. trifla and chayvanprash. Fruits are commonly used for preserve (murabbas), pickles, candy, jelly and jam. Besides fruits, leaves, bark and even seeds are being used for various purposes. Very few insect pests are reported on aonla and the details of which are provided here under:

Mealy bug, Planococcus citri Risso (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

It is a highly polyphagous pest feeding on wide range of cultivated/ uncultivated plants. Citrus, mango, guava are few major hosts besides aonla. The bug is a small soft bodied insect the female of which is wingless

Choosing an appropriate location for an apiary is a crucial aspect of natural beekeeping. The productivity, health, and survival of bee colonies are strongly affected by environmental elements such as vegetation diversity, local climate conditions, availability of water, and absence of regular disturbances. In natural farming systems, selecting a site takes on greater importance, as it aims to harmonize with nature, reduce interference, and integrate smoothly with the broader farm ecosystem

An ideal apiary should be situated in a calm, shaded location, away from frequent human activity, loud noises, and pesticide contamination. Bees are extremely sensitive to chemical residues; therefore, the surrounding area should follow organic or chemical-free farming practices. The site must offer year-round access to nectar and pollen sources—like flowering plants, trees, herbs, and native vegetation—to maintain steady nutrition for the bees

Having a clean water source within 500 meters is essential, as bees use water for cooling, honey processing, and nurturing the brood. If there’s no natural water body nearby, shallow containers filled with water and pebbles or floating sticks should be provided. The area should also be shielded from high winds, harsh sunlight, and heavy rains through natural barriers such as hedgerows, bamboo groves, or dense shrubs.

India is the largest producer and consumer of areca nut, Areca catechu also known as betel nut or supari, in the world. It also holds significant cultural and religious importance. Major cultivation is done in Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal. Spindle bug and inflorescence caterpilar are the major pests alongwith root grub, the details of which are provided hereunder:

Spindle bug, Mircarvalhoia arecae (Miller and China) (Miridae: Hemiptera)

It is a major indirect pest of arecanut plantations in all arecanut growing tracts. Eggs are oval having 2 bristle like structures arising from operculum. The nymphs are greenish to violet brown, thorax and border of the abdomen light violet brown and head is light yellow with red eyes. The adult is a hairy dark violet brown bug with black tipped abdomen (Plate 12h) and measures 6mm in length and 2mm in breadth.

Introduction

For many years, it has been acknowledged that “augmentative” or “inundative” biological management can decrease arthropod pests (DeBach, 1964). The goal of increased biocontrol is to bring about behavioral and numerical changes in the natural enemies that live within agricultural environments. This tactic calls for the large production of natural enemies as well as their periodic release, to maximize their potential for reproduction during the growing season. For instance, the use of augmentative releases may be required if naturally occurring populations of parasitoids or pests are either nonexistent, do not successfully colonize fields or orchards, or colonize at a point in the season that is too late to provide effective pest control. The increase is being carried out to establish a population of natural enemies capable of keeping the number of pests at economically hazardous levels until harvesting time.

Biological Control

Controlling problems caused by things like mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases with the help of other organisms is called biological control or biocontrol. It uses natural mechanisms like predation, parasitism, herbivory, and so on, but human intervention is almost always present.

Parasitoids

The term “parasitoid” refers to a group of insects, the larvae of which develop on or within the bodies of other insects, which the parasitoid kills eventually. The phenomenon is known as parasitism. The vast majority of parasitoids are classified as either wasps (Hymenoptera) or flies (Diptera). These insects are numerically quite abundant and play a significant role in almost every terrestrial environment.

Introduction

According to an estimate by World Health Organization (WHO), about one million cases of pesticides poisoning and 20, 000 deaths occur every year due to pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, oils, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat and water. At global level, chemical pesticide worth US$ 30 billion is being used annually for the management of diseases and insect pests. In spite of this, epidemics of diseases, infestations of insect pests and colonization by weeds results in significant losses in agriculture production worldwide. As a result of crop improvement programs to incorporate resistance to pests, devastations epidemics and infestations are rare. Nevertheless, pests continue to exert a heavy toll in terms of yield losses. The last global estimate of yield losses due to pests, made crops like rice, wheat, maize, cotton, soybean, barley and coffee were equivalent to approximately US $ 250 billion annually during the period the period 1989-1990 (Table 1). Since these eight crops occupy only half of the global cropped area, yield losses due to all pests on all crops would be much high. The estimates indicate that 42 per cent of the total global attainable production of the eight major crops is lost due to pests, of which 16, 13 and 13 per cent losses are due to insects, diseases and weeds, respectively. Post harvest losses are estimated to cause an additional 10 per cent loss. Developing countries incur higher losses than industrial countries. (Table 2).

It is interesting to note that only 25 of about 1200 species of birds found in India have been reported to inflict damage to crops, vegetables and fruits. The exact ecological causes for population increase of individual species have yet to be studied. It would appear that, in general, the granivorous birds became abundant with the increase in area under grain crops and the subsequent storage of grain in godowns and bulk storage. The details of important bird pests are given below:

Banana, Musa paradisiaca is one of the most important tropical fruit crops. India tops in the production of banana in the world and almost throughout the year banana fruit is available form one or another part of our country. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are the major states in cultivating and producing banana in India. The major insect pests associated with banana crop are described hereunder:

Banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

It is most destructive and specific pest of banana and is distributed throughout the country. The eggs are elongate, oval (about 2 mm long), pearly white and present on upper surface and crevices of rhizome. The grubs are creamy white, stout, fleshy swollen in the middle and has red head capsule (Plate 10a). The full grown grub measures 15 mm in length. Pupae are white and found in the pupal chamber made in the periphery of rhizome. The newly emerged weevil is shiny reddish brown but soon becomes uniformly black (12.5mm in length). Longitudinal striations are found in the elytra and it does

A. Purchase

a)Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags.

b)Do not purchase pesticides without proper/approved labels.

c)Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500 or 1000 g/ml for single application in specified area.