eChapters

Abstract

India has diversified agro-climatic conditions with significant variability in climatic factors viz, rainfall pattern, temperature, humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed etc. A no of fruit crops and vegetable crops are grown in India with significant differences in climatic requirements for sustainable growth and production of these crops. Attempt has also been made to have off season production of horticultural crops. Weather variability could also play a pivotal role in disease and pest incidence. So, forecasting of yield along with disease pest incidence should be given top priority to save the crop from weather vagaries and increase the crop productivity.

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially. Crop management is therefore very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

Climatic statistics applies quantitative methods to weather and climate observations, transforming raw records into information for forecasting, planning and resource management. This chapter explains how averages, variability, distribution, trends and extremes describe climatic behaviour over time and space. It introduces climate normals, measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, data quality, missing-value treatment, homogenization and outlier detection. Statistical interpretation helps distinguish short-term weather fluctuations from long-term climatic patterns. In agriculture, these techniques support crop planning, drought assessment, rainfall characterization and risk management. The chapter establishes the statistical foundation required for scientifically examining climate variability and its influence on crops, ecosystems and agricultural resources.

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Abstract

Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Abstract

Pest damage is an age old problem of Indian agriculture. The increased accumulation of green house gases always changes the climatic conditions that have potential effects in increasing pest population.  The insect pests are cold-blooded animals and their body temperature varies with the surrounding temperature. Thus, any change in the climate and weather is bound to influence the activity of pests. The pests are directly influenced by temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and other environmental factors in terms of their occurrence, development, reproduction, distribution, migration and adaptation. In many cases the insect out breaks which classified as gradient out breaks are not self-driven but are entirely dependent on external environmental conditions. For example, the number of aphids has frequently been shown to be correlated with several environmental factors. Such correlations indicate an understanding of aphid out breaks. The increased temperature as a result of climate change has several implications for agricultural pests. These are as follows: (i) changes in population growth rates, (ii) increased number of generations, (iii) extension of development season, (iv) extension of geographical range, (v) increased over wintering, (vi) changes in crop-pest synchrony, (vii) changes in interspecific interactions, (vii) increased risk of invasion by migrant pests, (ix) introduction of alternate hosts, and (x) availability of over wintering hosts.

Clouds play very important role on weather and climate. The formation of clouds takes place when water condenses in the sky. Clouds are visible accumulation of tiny water droplets and ice crystals in the Earth’s atmosphere. The moisture is always present in the atmosphere though it may not be visible. Clouds form when air becomes cooler until the water vapour present in it condenses to liquid form. The condensation over oceans occurs around solid particles like salt, dust, smoke etc. suspended in the atmosphere. The type of clouds depends upon temperature and wind. The clouds are classified based on physical appearance and the height at which clouds are formed (Fig. 7.1).

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth’s weather and climate systems. This chapter, “cloud formation and classification,” will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds.
Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation.
By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of Earth’s weather and climate systems. This chapter, “Cloud Formation and Classification,” will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized. The essential ingredients for cloud formation are the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will look into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds. Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus. Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation. In the end of the chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form, the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.
5.1 Clouds
Clouds are visible masses of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the Earth’s atmosphere. These droplets or crystals are so small and light that

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 µm to 50 µm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 µm radius to over 10 µm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 million. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain. Clouds complete the following functions.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth‘s weather and climatesystems. This chapter, „cloud formation and classification,“ will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds. Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation. By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

Cloud usually consists of very small droplets of water which cannot fall appreciably below the cloud base without evaporation. In this condition clouds are stable. Rain drops are about a million times heavier than cloud drops and rain develops only if the cloud droplets grow by some mechanism. Cloud Seeding mechanism depends on the difference in vapour pressure over ice and super cooled cloud, water evaporates of the droplets and migrate to the ice crystal, which grows and begins to fall increasing their growth rate by coalescence with other droplets and eventually melting and falling as rain drops. Presence of ice nuclei determines whether ice crystals form in a supercoold cloud or not. Ice crystals form on naturally occurring nuclei at temperatures of – 10⁰ to 30⁰ C. At warmer temperatures, either the efficient ice-forming nuclei are often deficient in the atmosphere or the cloud may occur with tops supercooled but not to an extent which activates the ice nuclei available. It should be possible to initiate precipitation by introducing ice crystals or by supplying artificial nuclei.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 µm to 50 µm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 µm radius to over 10 µm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain. Clouds are essential to the earth-atmosphere system. They complete the following functions.

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 μm to 50 μm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 μm radius to over 10 μm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On an average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain.

Coastal areas are defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries.

Economic importance of coastal areas

Many of the world’s major cities are located in coastal areas, and a large portion of economic activities are concentrated in these cities. The coastal zone is an area of convergence of activities in urban centres, such as shipping in major ports, and wastes generated from domestic sources and by major industrial facilities. Many of the world’s most productive agricultural areas are located in river deltas and coastal plains, which contribute for national economic growth.

Introduction

India contains around 7517 km of coast line, which is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to its south. The Indian Coastal ecosystem, where land and water join to create an environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and f low of energy. They include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different types of plants and animals. (Marale. 2013). The geographic and land use details of Indian coastal zone is presented in Table 1.

Coastal ecosystems of india

India has a long coastline of 7,517 km that span 13 maritime states and union territories, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million square kilometers. The country has a diverse range of habitats: continental area and offshore islands and a variety of coastal ecosystems such as estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes, sea grass beds, backwaters, rocky coasts, mudf lats, sand dunes, and coastal beaches. Coasts and islands form 2.8% of India’s geographical area. The coastal ecosystem consists of 43,230 km² of coastal wetlands with 97 major estuaries and 34 major lagoons; 4921 km² of mangroves with 31 mangrove areas, and 3062.97 km² of coral reefs with 5 coral reef areas (MoEFCC, 2018). A network of 14 major, 44 medium and numerous minor rivers together with their tributaries with a total length of over 40,000 km, contribute to the coastal sea directly or indirectly. By area, tidal/mudf lats are predominant and by length, more than half of the Indian coastline is sandy. The states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have extensive coastline (Fig. 1).

Abstract

The area of study extends about 65 km from Gamasa City to Burg El-Burullus. The coastal sand dunes are very near to the shoreline in Baltim and El-Burg and far from the shoreline in Gamasa. It is narrow with relatively steep slope northward near Burg El-Burullus and Baltim, while it increases in width eastward to become wide with gentle slope near Gamasa. The coastal sand dunes are very mobile and move toward the agricultural lands, roads (international coastal road), resorts, and other developmental activities. The sand dunes in the study area are classified into two categories, the old fixed dunes and recent mobile dunes. The main directions of wind blow are N, W, and NW directions. It causes the movement of mobile dunes (Barchan and longitudinal). Several methods have been used for dune fixation like the tar spraying, wind fences and stones. Wind fences are not costly and nonpolluting if compared with stonewall and tar spraying, which prevent the land utilization for agricultural purposes.

Predatory journals undermine the integrity of academic publishing by charging exorbitant fees without providing rigorous peer review. These deceptive entities exploit the academic community, especially targeting early-career researchers, those from underfunded institutions, and scholars in developing countries. By prioritizing profit over quality, predatory journals erode trust in the research ecosystem, dilute scientific knowledge, and tarnish the reputation of genuine academic endeavors (Fig. 11.1).
This chapter delves into the multifaceted challenges posed by predatory journals and outlines comprehensive strategies for researchers, institutions, and policymakers to combat their pernicious effects.
11.1. Understanding Predatory Journals
Predatory journals are characterized by their lack of transparency, absence of editorial rigor, and aggressive solicitation of authors. They often masquerade as legitimate open-access journals but fail to adhere to the ethical standards of scholarly publishing. Unlike reputable journals, which uphold rigorous peer-review processes to ensure the validity and originality of research, predatory journals accept articles with minimal or no scrutiny. This results in the dissemination of low-quality or even fraudulent research, undermining the credibility of academic literature.
Several red flags can help researchers identify predatory journals. These include: