eChapters

Intellectual property (IP) encompasses creations of the human intellect, including inventions, artistic and literary works, as well as symbols, names, and designs. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal mechanisms thaprovide creators with exclusive rights to use, manage, and profit from their creations. These rights help protect the interests of innovators and promote continued creativity and innovation.
Intellectual Property Rights refer to the legal entitlements granted to individuals or organizations over their creative and intellectual works, such as patents, trademarks, and copyrights. These rights grant exclusive control or usage privileges for a specific duration, often creating a temporary monopoly. While the concept of intellectual property began to take shape in the 19th century, it was only during the 20th century that it was formally integrated into global legal frameworks.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) safeguard the creations of the human mind, such as inventions, artistic and literary works, brand names, logos, designs, and images used in commerce. These rights help foster innovation by allowing creators and inventors to benefit economically from their work.
Key Points
1. Intellectual Property Rights are legal protections acquired by creators or owners of intellectual works.
2. Intellectual property encompasses intangible assets that result from human creativity and thought.

Basics of Technology Commercialization
Technology, a ubiquitous force shaping our world, can be understood from various angles. Here’s a breakdown of its definition, functions, and the fascinating process of its advancement.
Definition
At its core, technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It’s not just about gadgets and gizmos; it encompasses a vast array of systems, processes, and tools that we use to transform the world around us and solve problems. This includes everything from the humble wheel to the intricate workings of artificial intelligence.
Functions
Technology serves a multitude of functions, broadly categorized into:
Simplifying tasks: From automated manufacturing to self-driving cars, technology automates and streamlines processes, saving time and effort.
Enhancing communication and connection: From the internet to social media, technology bridges geographical barriers and fosters global interaction.
Expanding our knowledge and understanding: Scientific instruments, telescopes, and advanced data analysis tools enable us to explore the universe, delve into the microscopic world, and gain deeper insights into various fields.

There is no terminal of any kind of research, rather they presence a static snap of the gamut of ecological dynamics and functions.

The following scopes for future research

• To construct modelling on resilience, beyond agriculture like livestock f ishery, forestry.

• To create new Algorithm of prediction in ecological behaviour and dynamics

• Gender and economic factors in resilience study and analysis

• Ecological resilience in different agro climatic zones covering coastal ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem red lateritic ecosystem etc

• Policy research in ensuring and intriguing ecological resilience as well as social resilience on the common platform of production behaviour

• Importance of ecological resilience in the perspective of climate change and global warming

7.1 Summary

Never ever in the annals of human civilization, the importance of ecological resilience has become so important and imperative as we are perceiving now. Both the need and greed of food economics have driven the resource bases of our ecosystem, to a dilapidated and fragile status. By 2050 the world’s population will touch close to 9.5 billion and we have to scale up our food production 60% more then what it is right now. In India by 2040, we have to cross 450 million tons of our targeted food production to keep rhythm with population growth. By 2035 we are going to cross the population of China. Understanding the cascade of risks for climate change, as well as the vulnerabilities to these risks, is key to frame ways to adapt. Reducing vulnerabilities is key to reducing the net impacts on food security and nutrition and also to reducing long-term effects. Increasing resilience of food security in the face of climate change calls for multiple interventions, from social protection to agricultural practices and risk management..

When population pressure is soaring up, the need to produce more food from less and less available land and water, the issues of ecological resilience are coming up more swashbuckling and humongous. The aftermath of green revolution has contributed to achievement in food security on one hand, the other hand water has been contaminated and depleted, soil has been eroded with a sharp decline of organic carbon. We are losing 15 tons of topsoil per hectare per year and inviting a disruptive agro-ecosystem, the syndrome of which are quite vivid and prominent.

6.1. Data Interpretation and Visualization of West Bengal

Any kind of production management system or decision-making process is being organised in social ecology. No variable cannot behave discrete or free without having any kind of influence as well as impact from the vary operating ecosystem. That is how it is imperative to know and visualize the basic features in terms of its distributive characters. The distribution of features in variables through this networking and interactions ultimately contribute to a holistic visualization of social ecologization under study.

Table 6.1.1 represents the distribution of variables in terms of range i.e. maximum and minimum values, mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation for Terai Zone, Old Alluvial Zone and New Alluvial Zone of West Bengal.

The average age (x1) of the respondent stands at 49.02. It denotes that so far as responsibility of agriculture and age base livelihood runs at the population so far as the respondent under study is peaks are at the hands of farmers approaching or passing through old ages. On the contrary the absence of young population or withdrawal of young age farmers from agriculture have got a serious implecation near and far. The cv value runs at 25.78 per cent to indicate that the distribution of variable is highly consistant.

The average of functional education (x2) of the respondent stands at 8.20.The variable education charecterization the social ecology speaks that the most of the respondents are having mid level school education.So, this has got spil over effect on the function and operation of other variables i.e. precisely the perception variables.The cv value stands at 43.69 per cent that’s good enough to infer that the distribution of the variable is highly consistent.

5.1 Locale of Research

Based on the All-India assessment report regarding Climate Vulnerability Assessment for Adaptation Planning in India Using a Common Framework which identifies the most vulnerable states and districts in India with respect to current climate risk and the main drivers of vulnerability, the present study has been conducted in two relatively highly vulnerable states of India namely West Bengal (Vulnerability Indices:0.592) and Jharkhand (Vulnerability Indices: 0.674). It specifically comes under Agro-climatic zone III (Lower Gangetic plain region) and Agro-climatic zone VII (Eastern plateau and hilly region) respectively.

On the basis of Vulnerability Indices (Vis) different district of West Bengal classified into three categories i.e. relatively high vulnerability (0.59-0.69), moderate vulnerability (0.49 -0.59), and relatively low vulnerability (0.38- 0.49). Two districts, Malda (VIs:0.690) and Jalpaiguri (VIs:0.627) from highly vulnerable and three district Murshidabad (VIs:0.524), Dakshin Dinajpur (VIs:0.523) and Burdwan (VIs:0.497) from moderate vulnerable category were selected purposively for the present study. For satisfying the purposes three agroclimatic zones of the West Bengal, viz. Terai Zone (Jalpaigudi), Old Alluvial Zone (Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur) and New Alluvial Zone (Burdwan) districts were taken into account for the assessment. Twenty respondents of two Villages from each Block i.e., Alipurduar-I of Jalpaigudi, Hilli and Gangarampur of Dakshin Dinajpur, Old Malda of Murshidabad and Barabani of East Burdwan were purposively picked for the research study.

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components. Besides the investigators must also have the basic knowledge about the socio demographic background of the people so as to have an easy understanding of their knowledge, attitude and behavior.

Research setting refers to the detail information of an area where the study has been conducted. The study area, generally comprises of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the convenience of the investigator who possess adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility etc. of the locality so that he/she can easily approach each and every corner of the area for data collection. Here. in this study the data collection was done mostly over telephone based on the interview schedule due to Covid-19 pandemic situation.

3.1 Conceptual Framework

Aconceptual framework is an analytical tool that is used to get a comprehensive understanding of the study. It embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. It is generally constructed to provide the researcher the element ofattainable and researchable problems and ideas supported by methodology, design, prospective analysis and empirical conclusion. The conceptual framework is often called as the research paradigm.

The subject matter of the present research is Resilience and productivity of agriculture in different social-ecology: the farmers’ perception, status and interpretation. It is expected that the terminologies and concepts used to frame up the topic need to undergo brief explanation for the better understanding of its meaning.

Resilience: Resilience is about anticipating, planning and reducing disaster risk to effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socio-economic assets and ecosystems. The ideas of ‘bounce back’, ‘spring forward’ and ‘build back better’ are often used in the context of resilience.

Productivity: Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio between the output volume and the volume of inputs. It measures how efficiently production inputs, are being used in an economy to produce a given level of output.

Agriculture: The word agriculture derives from the Latin ager (field) and colo (cultivate) signifying, when combined, the Latin agricultura: field or land tillage. But the word has come to subsume a very wide spectrum of activities that are integral to agriculture and have their own descriptive terms, such as cultivation, domestication, horticulture, arboriculture, and vegeculture, as well as forms of livestock management such as mixed crop-livestock farming, pastoralism, and transhumance. The Oxford English Dictionary (1971) defines agriculture as “The science and art of cultivating the soil, including the allied pursuits of gathering in the crops and rearing livestock; tillage, husbandry, farming.”

This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives a knowledge of what others have found out in the related f ield of study. In any scientific investigation or research a comprehensive presentation of review of literature is a statutory requirement. Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones, also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature of the present study is based on the major concepts related to the f ield of investigation. As direct references on all the item are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated in this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use.

Review of literature has been organized with a view to provide hard evidences as to clinically justify the reasons, logic, and contemplation leading to heuristically infer the different echelons of resilience issues.This is also catered to isolate the apparently less attempted genre of resilience study and analysis. Climate change, uncertainty, decline of soil organic carbon, fatigued genes on land, loss of biodiversity and fragile ecology of society have only been some of myriad of factors causing the loss of resilience, from ecology and from society as well.

1.1. Background

Once this beautiful planet conceived human civilization with the glory of motherhood, the birds kept on twittering in an ecstasy of joy and freedom; the ripples of pristine rivers, blue and giggling, offered shelter to silvery fishes and pink Amazon Lilies! But human greed has defeated its own needs. So, what had been a means to survive now has turned into tools to triumph, rather, a weapon to destroy her own creation. By this time, we have transformed fertile lands into a barren Arizona, deep forests into a nasty slums and blue rivers into a filthy stream, called Yamuna.

The advent of the Anthropocene, implies that an unprecedented era of human impact on the natural environment, is now so large that the Earth has entered a new geological epoch; it is leaving the Holocene, the environment within which human societies themselves have developed (Gornish and dos Santos, 2016; Reynolds, 2021). Climate change is a prominent sign of human- driven changes to the global environment. There is every reason to be alarmed about anthropogenic climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, all of which have been accelerating in recent decades and do pose “existential crisis” (Díaz et al., 2020; Abhilash et al., 2021). Sixth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released on February 28, 2022, paints a troubling picture as limiting global warming to 1.5oC (a global target in the Paris Climate Agreement) is not safe for all. If warming exceeds 1.5oC, even temporarily, much more severe, often irreversible effects of climate change will occur, land and ocean temperature change, sea level rise and ocean acidification, loss of Arctic Sea ice and ice sheets, stronger storms, longer heatwaves and droughts, abrupt precipitation mainly intensity and seasonal distribution, thawing permafrost and more (IPCC, 2013). On the basis of the Sixth Assessment UN Secretary-General António Guterres said “The alarm bells are deafening, and the evidence is irrefutable: greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel burning and deforestation are choking our planet and putting billions of people at immediate risk.” According to the United Nations (2015), there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD,1.25/ day). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70% of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly or completely on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed (IFAD, 2011). The rural poor often depend partly on forests for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2002). It is estimated that between 660 and 820 million people (workers and their families) depend totally or partly on fisheries, aquaculture and related industries as a source of income and support (HLPE, 2014).

Introduction

The intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which takes account of on historical, psychological, social , physical and economic and political perspectives of climate change in its report, released in November 2014 said that the Working Group I contribution to the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) considers new evidence of climate change based on many independent scientific analyses from observations of the climate system, paleoclimate archives, theoretical studies of climate processes and simulations using climate models. Climate change is not controversial as naysayers and some media would convey. After decades of careful observation, collection of data, and tracking of changes in the climate system, there exists a solid, scientific consensus that human-caused climate change is a reality (Michael, 2012). In their report, the NCSE 2015 says that there is substantial scientific agreement about the occurrence, causes, and consequences of climate change. Yet due to the inherent complexity of the topic and the social controversies surrounding it, confusion and doubt often persist. Here, we need to develop the workforce, education, and training for climate-smart Agriculture. The following are some interventions.

Introduction The idea of LiFE was introduced by the Prime Minister during the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow from 31st October to 13 November 2022. The idea promotes an environmentally conscious lifestyle that focuses on ‘mindful and deliberate utilisation’ instead of ‘mindless and wasteful consumption’.(PIB India)

The LiFE Movement aims to utilise the power of collective action and nudge individuals across the world to undertake simple climate-friendly actions in their daily lives. The LiFE movement, additionally, also seeks to leverage the strength of social networks to influence social norms surrounding climate. The Mission plans to create and nurture a global network of individuals, namely ‘Pro-Planet People’ (P3), who will have a shared commitment to adopt and promote environmentally friendly lifestyles. Through the P3 community, the Mission seeks to create an ecosystem that will reinforce and enable environmentally friendly behaviours to be self-sustainable.

Introduction

India has one of the world’s largest agricultural production areas of land. The net sown area is 140.1 million hectares, the net irrigated area is 49% of this, which is 68.4 million ha as per 2014–15 land-use statistics (Agriculture Research Data Book 2019). While the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture is decreasing, agriculture, along with its allied sectors such as livestock, forestry and fisheries, remains India’s primary source of income. As per the Lok Sabha Standing Committee on Agriculture (2019–20), agriculture and allied industries employed 54.6 percent of India’s total workforce. Approximately 70% of rural households still rely primarily on agriculture for a living. Agriculture and allied sectors’ share of the country’s Gross Value Added (the value of goods and services produced in an area, industry, or sector of an economy) has fallen from 18.2 percent in 2014-15 to 16.5 percent in 2019-20. As per current trends, 60% of India’s population (more than 10% of the world’s population) will face severe food shortages by 2050.

Introduction

Despite recent significant increases in global food production Sustainable development goal- “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture” seems unachievable. Globally, 1 in 9 people are undernourished, the vast majority of whom live in developing countries. Under nutrition causes wasting or severe wasting of 52 million children worldwide. It contributes to nearly half (45%) of deaths in children under five – 3.1 million children per.Today, the majority of the world’s hungry people—nearly 870 million—live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Climate change impacts on food security and livelihoods are already alarming and affecting millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2016).

In view of today’s 795 million hungry and the additional 2 billion people expected by 2050, there is an urgent need for a change of global food and agriculture systems in order to sustainably increase food production (UN, 2016). This will exert intense pressure on agro-ecosystems that are already overburdened, particularly in developing countries as most of those increases in production have to occur in this part of the world. The environmental impacts of satisfying this increased food demand will be further aggravated by climate change. With increased frequency and severity of droughts, extreme heat conditions and over dependence on rainfed agriculture, there is a growing agricultural productivity crisis, dwindling household food availability and the economic prosperity of countries whose national economies are dependent on agriculture. Considering that climate change impacts are felt differently within regions, context-specific adaptation measures are required to reduce risks and build adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers (Altieri, M.Aet al.2017).

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

1. Introduction

Biochar, produced from pyrolytic decomposition of lignocellulosic biomass, is a solid hard product and a unique green material for soil amendments. Its use has been identified in Amazon fertility as ancient indigenous practice. Through ‘pyrolysis’ (heating without oxygen) process (‘pyro’ which means caused by heat whereas ‘lysis’ means dis-integration), there are three types of yields we get: a solid product (biochar), a gaseous product (syngas/ synthesis gas), and a liquid (bio-oil). The solid item, biochar, is applied for soil amendments. It can be used in agricultural, industrial, and environmental as a functional material. Solid char, a common pyrolytic outcome is charcoal, typically used to designate the solid char product that is ignited for fuel, whereas “biochar” designates the unique solid char purposively used as a soil amendment agent. On the other hand, the gaseous and liquid counterparts of pyrolysis have commercial applications like green energy, feedstock raw materials, and precursors (Fig.1).

Introduction Large cardamom is an important cash crop cultivated in Sikkim. It is also cultivated in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and some parts of North-eastern state like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur. It is a low volume, high value non-perishable crop grown organicallyat different altitudes under the trees. The State produces about 4,970 tonnes annually from an area of 23,312 hectares (Spice board, 2021). Among the four districts of Sikkim, North and East Sikkim district contributes largest in terms of area and production of large cardamom (GoS, 2016). Off-late, climate change has become a major concern for the large cardamom growers as many researchers reported its contribution to the decline of its production. Sikkim, as Himalayan states, is endowed with varied agro-climate ranging from tropical in the South to alpine in the North. Shrestha et al. (2010) reported that warming in the Himalayas was between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade in the last three decades. Seetharam (2012) revealed that in Gangtok, there is a decreasing trend in maximum temperature while an increasing trend in minimum temperature. The study also depicted the decreasing trend of annual rainfall amount in the study area. In a recent study, Kumar et al. (2020) reported that the warming was more prominent in the last decades in Gangtok and Tadong station, better reflected in the minimum temperature with varied precipitation across the observed period from 1961 2017.

Introduction

Increasing use and rise in the cost of chemical fertilizers, pollution due to their application and decline in soil fertility and micro flora are worrying facts to the farming community. Increased awareness about organic produce among the consumers is another reason to find out an alternative to chemical fertilizers. Vermicompost production on farm and its use in crop production is one way of mitigating these problems. Among the different methods, Windrow method of vermicomposting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues as long rows (Windrows) on the surface of soil under the shade of trees without any permanent structures and later releasing required quantity of earthworms in wet beds. This vermibed technology is simple and cost effective and sustainable to adopt.

The prototypes have been exhibited in the premises of Dairy unit, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad since long and many farmers seeing these were of the opinion that technology was simple and easy to adopt using the farm generated biomaterial waste with no additional cost. During 2020-21, when farmers of remote villages Dharwad district were interacted, it was noticed that still the technology was not followed by the farmers.Therefore, a team of Green Foundation based in Dharwad made an attempt to reach the farmers of remote villages of Dharwad district to make aware of this technology. After interactions with different categories of farmers, a modest attempt has been made to identify small and large farmers of remote villages viz. Basavarsikoppa and Holtikoti of Dharwad district during 2021-22 to sensitize and demonstrate windrow method of vermicompost production. The results, experiences of the farmers and finally the impact of the technology are discussed here in this presentation.

1. Introduction

The agriculture sector in Asia and the Pacific plays a vital role in the rural economy, making significant contributions to both GDP and employment. This sector serves as a cornerstone for food production, economic growth and poverty reduction in the region. Understanding the importance of farming in the region’s rural economy, as well as the need for viable farming systems particularly for smallholder farms, is essential for sustainable development.

Importance of Farming in the Rural Economy

Farming has a substantial impact on the rural economy of Asia and the Pacific. It serves as a primary source of income and livelihood for rural populations, contributing significantly to the region’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The agricultural sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, and forestry, providing diverse opportunities for economic development.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), farming accounts for 29 percent of the region’s GDP (FAO, 2021). This demonstrates the significant economic value that agriculture brings to the region, making it a crucial sector for sustainable development. The revenue generated from agricultural activities supports not only farmers but also other stakeholders in the value chain, including agro-industries, distributors, and exporters.