eChapters

Geomorphological mapping is the process of creating detailed maps that illustrate the physical features of the Earth's surface, including landforms, soil types, vegetation, and water resources. These maps can be used to better understand the underlying geology and topography of a region, and can be used for a variety of purposes, such as land-use planning, environmental management, and geological hazard assessment.

Geomorphological maps are typically created using a combination of field observations, aerial photography, and remote sensing data. Field observations involve physically visiting a site and making detailed observations of the landforms, soil types, and vegetation. Aerial photography involves taking high-resolution photographs of the Earth's surface from an airplane or satellite, which can be used to create detailed maps of the area. Remote sensing data can also be used to create geomorphological maps, including data from satellites, radar, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems. These technologies allow scientists to gather data about the Earth's surface without physically visiting the site, and can provide highly accurate information about the topography, geology, and vegetation of an area. The resulting maps can be used for a variety of purposes, including land-use planning, natural resource management, and hazard assessment. For example, geomorphological maps can be used to identify areas of high risk for landslides, floods, or earthquakes, and can be used to develop strategies for managing these hazards.

Rock

A rock is a solid, naturally occurring substance composed of minerals or mineraloids. It is typically formed through geological processes, such as cooling and solidification of molten lava or magma, or by the deposition and compaction of sediment over time. Rocks are classified into three main types based on their origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten lava or magma. Examples include granite, basalt, and obsidian.

Sedimentary rocks: Formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediment, such as sand, mud, or organic matter, over long periods. Examples include sandstone, limestone, and shale.

Metamorphic rocks: Formed from the transformation of existing rocks under high temperature and pressure conditions. They undergo changes in mineral composition, texture, and structure. Examples include marble, slate, and gneiss.

Rocks serve as the building blocks of the Earth's crust and are an essential part of the geological processes that shape the planet. They can provide valuable information about Earth's history, including the formation of mountains, the movement of continents, and the presence of ancient life forms. Rocks are also used in various practical applications, such as construction, road building, and the production of minerals and resources.

Structural landforms are landforms that are created due to the underlying geological structures of the earth's crust. These structures can include folds, faults, and other features that have been formed due to the tectonic forces that have shaped the earth's surface over millions of years.

Examples of structural landforms include mountain ranges, plateaus, and rift valleys. Mountain ranges are formed due to the upliftment of the earth's crust along a fault line or due to the folding of the earth's crust. Plateaus are flat-topped landforms that are formed due to the upliftment of a large area of the earth's crust. Rift valleys are formed due to the stretching and pulling apart of the earth's crust along a fault line.

Denudational landforms, on the other hand, are landforms that are created due to the process of erosion and weathering. These landforms are formed due to the gradual wearing down of the earth's surface by natural forces such as wind, water, and ice.

Interpretation of Drainage Patterns Through Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs can provide a useful tool for interpreting the drainage patterns of a landscape. Drainage patterns are formed by the natural movement of water across the land and the way in which it flows from high to low areas, creating channels and streams that eventually converge into larger rivers and bodies of water. Different types of drainage patterns can be identified through aerial photographs, which can help to understand the underlying geology and topography of the landscape.

Here are some of the different drainage patterns that can be identified through aerial photographs:

1. Dendritic pattern

This pattern resembles the branches of a tree and is the most common type of drainage pattern. It occurs in areas where the underlying rock or soil is uniform and has no preferred direction of erosion. The streams converge into larger rivers, which may flow in a particular direction.

India is a geologically diverse country with a wide variety of rock types. The major rock types found in India can be broadly classified into the following categories:

Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed from the solidification of molten magma. They can be further divided into two types:

1. Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include granite, diorite, and gabbro. These rocks are formed deep within the Earth's crust and have a coarse-grained texture.
2. Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks: Examples include basalt, andesite, and rhyolite. These rocks are formed on the Earth's surface from volcanic eruptions and have a fine-grained texture.

Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed by the deposition and consolidation of sediments over time. They can be further divided into various types based on their composition and mode of formation:

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. These rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of fragments of pre-existing rocks.
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Examples include limestone, dolomite, and rock salt. These rocks are formed from the precipitation of minerals from water bodies.

Lithological interpretation of igneous rocks involves the identification and description of the different types of rocks that form as a result of the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks can be classified based on their mineral composition, texture, and the way they formed. Here are some of the common types of igneous rocks and their characteristics:

1. Basalt

Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that forms from the rapid cooling of lava. It is typically composed of minerals such as pyroxene, plagioclase feldspar, and olivine.

Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava. It is typically dark in color, ranging from black to dark gray, and has a fine-grained texture. Basalt is composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals, with smaller amounts of olivine, magnetite, and other minerals.

Basalt is found in many parts of the world, including the oceanic crust, volcanic islands, and some continental regions. It is also used as a construction material, such as in road paving, because of its durability and resistance to weathering. Additionally, basalt fiber is used in various applications, including reinforcing materials in composites, insulation, and other industrial uses.

Basalt in India: Basalt is a type of igneous rock that is commonly found in India. It is a dark-colored, fine-grained rock that is rich in iron and magnesium minerals.

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

Introduction

The issue of environmental protection has become increasingly important in recent years, and one of the most effective ways to address this problem is through the use of recycled products. Recycling helps to conserve natural resources, reduce waste, prevent pollution, and combat climate change making it a critical part of any sustainable development strategy. In this chapter, we can explore how recycled products can help protect the environment and the many benefits that come with their use.

Introduction

Energy Consumption is considered as the energy used to do any task in any kind of a simple domestic building to a complicated manufacturing industry. For instance, in a household, energy is consumed in the form of electricity used to run an Air Conditioner to make a room cool, gas used to cook a dish etc. In a car industry, energy is consumed in the form of electricity to manufacture a car part. In the transport sector, petrol or diesel or gasoline is used as a run a car or bike or other vehicles.

Introduction

Global warming needs a shift to automobile solutions that reduces/ do not produce greenhouse gas emissions. Automobile related pollution is the major source for reduction in air quality in Indian cities. India need to reduce dependency on a fossil- fuel and reduced transportation related emissions. People living in some of the Indian cities are being affected by noise pollution and electric vehicles may contribute to a reduction in noise pollution levels in the cities. Energy efficiency and emissions are two important contributing factors in transportation across the globe.

The primitive people were living as part of the environment along with other f lora and fauna in a perfect synchrony. Prior to industrialisation the people were living in an environment friendly manner without causing much damage to natural resources. During the time they were making good progress and were building huge structures which are of technical excellence even today. Post industrialisation the whole scenario changed very fast. The population increased many fold, people started making more goods than required to have a market hold to earn more – the human greed increased beyond limit.

Introduction

The deterioration of interior air quality brought on by dangerous chemicals and other factors is known as indoor air pollution, which can be up to 10 times worse than outside air pollution. This is due to the fact that confined spaces foster the buildup of potential pollutants more than do open spaces. In underdeveloped countries, statistics show that indoor air pollution has a far worse effect on health than outside air pollution. Indoor air pollution can be defined as ‘ the totality of attributes of indoor air that affects a person’s health and well-being’ ( Singh & Jamal, 2012). Indoor air pollution from solid fuels was to blame for 3.5 million fatalities, 16% of particulate matter pollution, and 4.5% of global daily-adjusted life years in 2010. (DALY).

Introduction

Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or other medium to a solid surface (support base), Abdellatif MD, 2017. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. Interior wall painting is a repetitive, exhausting and hazardous process. In almost all the developing countries, the increasing population stimulates the construction-related activities such as interior finishing and painting. Painting is classically done by humans and generally requires exhaustive physical efforts and involves exposure to dangerous chemicals.

Introduction

The COVID-19, the Global Pandemic has affected the world and is still continuing with its various mutations even today. This has created a long-lasting impact and many sectors like energy, transport, industries, and residential buildings, have critically experienced impacts from the pandemic (Qarnain, Muthuvel, and Bathrinath 2020). It has directly and indirectly impacted every household’s operations. The mandatory COVID – 19 protocols, lockdowns, Work From Home (WFH) schedules and the major fear of every one of contracting the disease if going out itself has forced people to stay indoors and forced residents to use more energy for their daily routine activities, (routines like watching more TV, using environment control devices like fans, AC, room heaters etc.) giving rise to higher energy usage resulting in high energy bills and subsequent scarcity in the energy supply.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. (https://www.un.org/ en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) While it is possible to achieve enhanced food production to meet the demands of growing populations, the prevailing negative environmental trends, if continued, might cause crises in many parts of the world (Molden, 2007). The effects of climate change on agriculture can take place through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. (Anonymous, 2014A)

Even though the great Indian author Surpala mentioned in his epic ‘Vriksha ayurveda’ (Science of Tree growing) about the value of incorporation of earthworms in soil for better propagation of pomegranate plants in 10th century AD, but Sir Charles Darwin’s recognition to earthworms as ‘Farmer’s friends’ in 1837 in fact, inspired researchers throughout the world to study the role of earthworms in soil ecosystem.

Earthworms are defined as soft, bilaterally symmetrical, tubular segmented worms which contain clitella gland, prostomium lobe in front of mouth and anus at the posterior end. The entire body is divided externally into a series of distinct segments. Scientifically these terrestrial worms are classified under phylum ‘Annelida’ due to presence of annuli or ring segments and class ‘Oligochaeta’ due to presence of few setae or hair like structure on all segments except the first and last ones.

Startup India, the initiative of Government of India, was first announced by Honourable Prime Minister Mr Narendra Modi during his Independence Day speech on 15 August, 2015 and discussed elaborately again on 27 December 2015 in his radio address ‘Maan ki baat’ mentioning startup as new opportunities for the youth who want to set up new business or innovative projects. Indian Government lunched this ‘Startup India – Standup India’ campaign on 16 January 2016 with an intention to build a strong startup ecosystem for nurturing innovation and encouraging private investment.

Solid waste disposal has become Nation’s great concern since after spending more than 50 percent of their budget by Municipalities, they could collect and dispose about 70% of MSW leaving many parts of the municipality unclean every day and residents are not at all satisfied (Sannigrahi, 2016). The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) collected data from 299 cities of India on the mode of collection of MSW and found that manual collection comprised 50% while collection using trucks comprised only 49% (CPCB Report, 2000). It is very interesting to note that majority (more than 90%) of MSW are disposed by dumping in unscientific open land filling on outskirts of towns and cities while 10% of collected and 2% of uncollected MSW are burnt in open condition.

The harmful impact of chemical pesticides and fertilizers like gradual low productivity of land, growing nutrient imbalance in cultivated soils, accumulation of high pesticide residue in food materials, increasing resistance of harmful pests towards chemical pesticides and continuous increase in environmental pollution are forcing farmers to adopt organic or sustainable farming by considering vermicompost as possible substitute to the costly chemical fertilizers during crop cultivation. Gradual awareness among common people on organic farming, large availability of organic wastes in both rural as well as urban areas, more avenues of vermicomposting training, global market for organically produced foods and ever increasing unemployment problem have opened up greater prospects of commercial vermicomposting (Sannigrahi, 2012).