eChapters

The lives of farmers are intricately woven with the rhythms of nature, with weather playing a pivotal role in determining the success or failure of their crops. In an era where climate variability and extreme weather events are becoming increasingly common, the importance of accurate and reliable weather forecasts cannot be overstated. Farmers rely heavily on weather forecasts to make critical decisions that impact their agricultural practices, from planting and harvesting to irrigation and pest management. However, the process of using weather forecasts is not as straightforward as it may seem.
6.1. The Multifaceted Nature of Decision-Making
Farmers operate within a complex web of factors that influence their decisionmaking processes. Some of these factors include:
• Economic Considerations: Market fluctuations, input costs, and profit margins all play a role in shaping a farmer’s decisions. Weather forecasts must be considered in the context of these economic factors to ensure that decisions are financially viable.
• Social and Cultural Factors: Local traditions, community norms, and personal values can influence a farmer’s choices. For example, some farmers may prioritize environmental sustainability over profit maximization.
• Environmental Concerns: Soil health, water conservation, and biodiversity are all critical considerations for farmers. Weather forecasts must be integrated with these environmental concerns to ensure sustainable agricultural practices.
• Technological Advancements: The increasing use of precision agriculture, drones, and other technologies is changing the way farmers’ access and utilize weather information.
6.2. Challenges in Interpreting and Applying Weather Forecasts
The intricacies of interpreting and applying weather forecast data pose significant challenges for farmers. Some of these challenges include:
• Forecast Reliability: The accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts can vary significantly, making it difficult for farmers to trust and act upon the information.

The intricate balance between the Earth’s atmosphere and its ecosystems has always been a subject of fascination and concern, particularly when it comes to the impact of extreme weather events on agriculture. The delicate balance that sustains life on our planet is often disrupted by the very forces that make our environment dynamic and diverse. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves, have become a recurring theme in the narrative of global agriculture, leaving in their wake trails of devastation, economic loss, and food insecurity. Agriculture, the backbone of many economies around the world, is inherently sensitive to weather patterns. The cycle of planting, growth, and harvesting is deeply intertwined with the climate and weather conditions of a region. Any significant deviation from the expected weather patterns can have far-reaching consequences for crop yields, livestock health, and ultimately, the livelihoods of those dependent on farming and related activities. The relationship between weather and agriculture is not just about the immediate impacts of extreme events but also about the long-term changes in climate that alter the very fabric of agricultural practices and productivity. Weather hazards and disasters, by their nature, are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, posing unprecedented challenges to agricultural systems worldwide. These events not only affect the quantity and quality of agricultural produce but also have profound implications for the environment, economy, and society at large. For instance, a severe drought can lead to crop failure, affecting food availability and prices, while also depleting water resources, which in turn can exacerbate land degradation and loss of biodiversity. The global interconnectedness of food systems means that the impacts of extreme weather events on agriculture in one part of the world can have ripple effects on food security and economies elsewhere. This interconnectedness underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of the complex relationships between weather patterns, agricultural productivity, and the resilience of food systems. By examining the causes, consequences, and responses to extreme weather events and their impacts on agriculture, we can begin to unravel the intricacies of these interactions and explore strategies for mitigating the adverse effects and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems in the face of an increasingly unpredictable climate.

Agriculture is the backbone of many economies worldwide, particularly in developing countries where it is a significant source of livelihood for millions of people. However, agricultural productivity is heavily dependent on weather and climate conditions, making it one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate variability and change. The increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves further exacerbate the challenges faced by farmers, impacting crop yields, food security, and the overall sustainability of agricultural systems. To mitigate these impacts, operational agrometeorological advisories have become essential tools for farmers and agricultural stakeholders. These advisories provide critical information on weather and climate conditions, helping farmers make informed decisions on planting, harvesting, irrigation, pest management, and other agricultural practices. Traditionally, farmers have relied on indigenous knowledge and observations of natural phenomena to predict weather patterns and plan their agricultural activities. While this traditional knowledge is valuable, its limitations in the face of rapid climate change and the increasing complexity of agricultural systems necessitate the integration of modern approaches. Modern agrometeorological advisories leverage advances in meteorology, remote sensing, and information and communication technologies (ICTs) to provide more accurate and timely weather and climate information. These technologies enable the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data on various meteorological parameters, including temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. Furthermore, the development of crop models and decision support systems (DSS) allows for the simulation of crop growth and development under different weather and climate scenarios, facilitating more precise agricultural planning and management. Despite these advancements, there remains a significant gap in effectively integrating traditional and modern approaches to agrometeorological advisories. Many modern systems overlook the value of traditional knowledge, while indigenous practices may not fully incorporate the benefits of modern technology. This disconnect can lead to advisories that are not fully tailored to the needs and contexts of local farming communities, limiting their adoption and effectiveness. This chapter outlines a research agenda aimed at bridging this gap by exploring how traditional and modern approaches can be integrated to enhance

The agricultural sector is a complex and dynamic system, influenced by a
multitude of factors, including weather, soil, and market conditions. To provide effective support to farmers, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the diverse range of crops and farming systems that exist. Classification of crops and farmers is critical components of this understanding, as it enables the development of targeted and customized Agromet advisories that take into account the specific needs and circumstances of different farming communities.
9.1. The Importance of Classification
Classification of crops and farmers is a fundamental concept in agriculture, as it allows for the identification and grouping of similar crops and farming systems. This, in turn, enables the development of tailored recommendations and advisories that are relevant to specific farming contexts. By classifying crops and farmers, agricultural researchers, extension agents, and policymakers can better understand the diverse range of agricultural practices and systems, and develop targeted interventions that address the unique needs and challenges of different farming communities.
9.1.1. Customized Agromet Advisories
Agromet advisories are critical for supporting farmers in making informed decisions about their agricultural practices. By providing timely and accurate weather forecasts, advisories can help farmers to optimize their crop management, reduce losses due to weather-related events, and improve their overall productivity and income. However, to be effective, Agromet advisories must be customized to take into account the specific needs and circumstances of different farming communities. This requires a comprehensive understanding of the diverse range of crops and farming systems that exist, as well as the specific challenges and opportunities faced by different farmers.
9.1.2. The Role of Classification in Customized Agromet Advisories
Classification of crops and farmers plays a critical role in the development of customized Agromet advisories. By grouping similar crops and farming systems together, researchers and extension agents can identify patterns and trends that inform the development of targeted advisories. For example, advisories for farmers growing wheat in a particular region may focus on issues related to soil moisture, temperature, and pest management, while advisories for farmers growing rice in a

The intricate dance between climate and agriculture has been a longstanding relationship, with the former playing a pivotal role in shaping the latter. Nowhere is this more pronounced than in the choices rural households make regarding cropping systems and farming practices. The climate, with its multifaceted influences, acts as a silent decision-maker, guiding the selection of crops, farming techniques, and ultimately, the livelihoods of those who toil on the land. For rural households, the choice of cropping system and farming practices is not merely an economic or technological decision; it is deeply intertwined with the environmental context in which they operate. Climate variability and change introduce a layer of complexity, necessitating adaptations that can make or break the resilience of these households. The decision-making process is influenced by a range of climate-related factors, including temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events. This chapter aims to explore the nuanced relationship between climate and the agricultural choices made by rural households. By examining the impact of climate on cropping systems and farming practices, we can gain a deeper understanding of the adaptations and strategies employed by these households to mitigate risks and capitalize on opportunities. The discussion will encompass the various ways in which climate influences decision-making, from the selection of drought-resistant crop varieties to the adoption of conservation agriculture practices. Through a detailed analysis of the interplay between climate, cropping systems, and farming practices, this chapter seeks to provide insights into the complex dynamics at play. By doing so, it aims to contribute to a better understanding of how rural households can be supported in their efforts to adapt to a changing climate, ensuring the sustainability of their agricultural practices and the resilience of their livelihoods.
Key Considerations
• Climate Variability and Change: Understanding the impacts of changing temperature and precipitation patterns on agricultural productivity and decision-making.
• Adaptation Strategies: Examining the various adaptations and strategies employed by rural households to mitigate climate-related risks.
• Sustainability and Resilience: Exploring how climate-resilient agricultural practices can contribute to the sustainability of rural livelihoods.
• Decision-Making Processes: Analyzing the factors that influence decisionmaking in the context of climate, cropping systems, and farming practices.

Agricultural meteorology, the study of the interactions between the atmosphere and agricultural systems, has long been a crucial aspect of farming and food production. As the global population continues to grow, increasing pressure on agricultural systems to produce more food, fiber, and fuel while minimizing environmental impacts, the importance of agricultural meteorology will only continue to intensify. Operational agricultural meteorology, in particular, focuses on the practical application of meteorological knowledge to support decisionmaking in agricultural industries. This chapter introduces a systems analysis approach to operational agricultural meteorology, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex relationships between weather, climate, and agricultural systems.
11.1. The Need for a Systems Analysis Approach
Agricultural systems are inherently complex, involving numerous interactions between biotic and abiotic factors, such as soil, water, plants, animals, and the atmosphere. The complexity of these systems makes it challenging to understand and predict the impacts of weather and climate variability on agricultural productivity and sustainability. Traditional approaches to agricultural meteorology often focus on specific aspects of the system, such as crop yields or soil moisture, without considering the broader system dynamics. A systems analysis approach, on the other hand, recognizes the interconnectedness of these components and seeks to understand the system as a whole.
11.1.1. Key Components of a Systems Analysis Approach
A systems analysis approach (Fig. 11.1) to operational agricultural meteorology involves several key components:
• System Boundaries: Defining the boundaries of the agricultural system, including the spatial and temporal scales of interest.
• System Components: Identifying the key components of the system, such as crops, soil, water, and atmosphere, and their interactions.
• Feedback Loops: Recognizing the feedback loops within the system, where changes in one component influence other components.
• System Dynamics: Understanding the dynamic behavior of the system, including the flows of energy, water, and nutrients.

Operational agricultural meteorology is a critical field that applies meteorological knowledge and tools to support agricultural decision-making, enhance crop yields, and mitigate the impacts of weather and climate variability on agricultural systems. Effective collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders are essential for the successful application of agricultural meteorology (Fig. 12.1).
This chapter explores the linkages between key players in operational agricultural meteorology, including national meteorological services, research organizations, development departments dealing with agriculture and allied sectors, agricultural universities, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Importance of Collaboration in Agricultural Meteorology
The integration of meteorological information into agricultural practices requires a multidisciplinary approach. By working together, stakeholders can ensure that weather and climate data are accurately interpreted and applied to support farmers, policymakers, and other decision-makers. Collaboration can lead to improved agricultural productivity, reduced risks associated with weather extremes, and more sustainable agricultural practices.
12.1. Key Stakeholders and Their Roles
• National Meteorological Services (NMS): Provide weather and climate data, forecasts, and warnings that are critical for agricultural planning and management.    

The effective application of agricultural meteorology in supporting agricultural decision-making and productivity relies heavily on the skills and knowledge of the individuals involved. As the agricultural sector continues to face growing challenges from climate variability, weather extremes, and changing environmental conditions, the need for well-trained and informed professionals has never been more pressing. Skill Advancement and Knowledge Empowerment (SAKE) is crucial for ensuring that stakeholders, including farmers, agricultural advisors, policymakers, and meteorological service providers, have the necessary expertise to harness the benefits of agricultural meteorology (Fig. 13.1). This chapter focuses on the education, training, and capacity-building initiatives required to enhance the skills and knowledge of individuals working in operational agricultural meteorology. It explores the various levels of education and training needed, from basic awareness and understanding of meteorological concepts to advanced technical skills and specialized knowledge in areas such as agrometeorological modeling, data analysis, and decision-support systems. The chapter begins by discussing the importance of SAKE in the context of agricultural meteorology, highlighting the key challenges and opportunities in this field. It then examines the different types of education and training programs that can be implemented to address these challenges, including formal education, vocational training, workshops, and online courses. The role of knowledge empowerment through access to relevant information, tools, and technologies is

As we stand at the threshold of this final chapter, “Harvest For Future,” we reflect on the journey that has brought us to this moment. Throughout the preceding chapters, we’ve explored the intricate relationships between rural households, agricultural practices, and the ever-changing climate. We’ve examined the critical role that operational agricultural meteorology plays in empowering rural communities to adapt, innovate, and thrive in the face of uncertainty. From understanding local weather patterns to leveraging climate-resilient agricultural practices, we’ve traversed the complexities of sustainable rural development. Our exploration has taken us through the nuances of climate variability and its impact on agricultural productivity, water management, and soil health. We’ve discussed the importance of effective early warning systems, drought management strategies, and crop insurance programs in mitigating the risks associated with climate-related shocks. We’ve also highlighted the critical role that information and communication technologies can play in disseminating climate information, agricultural advisories, and market intelligence to rural households. Moreover, we’ve examined the human side of sustainable rural development, including the social, economic, and cultural factors that influence decision-making processes within rural households. We’ve looked at the ways in which agricultural meteorology can be used to support climate-resilient agriculture, enhance food security, and promote sustainable livelihoods. Through case studies and examples, we’ve seen how operational agricultural meteorology has been successfully implemented in various parts of the world, leading to improved agricultural productivity, increased incomes, and enhanced resilience among rural households. Now, as we look to the horizon, it’s time to distill the insights, strategies, and lessons learned into a cohesive vision for the future. What does a sustainable rural household look like in the context of a rapidly evolving climate? How can operational agricultural meteorology continue to support and uplift these communities, fostering resilience, equity, and prosperity? In this final chapter, we’ll synthesize the key takeaways from our exploration and chart a course for harnessing the full potential of agricultural meteorology to create a more sustainable, food-secure, and climate-resilient future for rural households worldwide. We’ll explore the opportunities and challenges associated with emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things, and how they can be leveraged to enhance the delivery of climate services to rural households. We’ll also examine the policy and institutional frameworks that are needed to support the widespread adoption of operational agricultural

1.1. Meteorology and Climatology
Atmospheric science encompasses the main subfields of meteorology and climatology that are similar in the scientific principles and phenomena being examined, but usually differ by approach, time scale, and application. Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather including weather forecasting. It is an interdisciplinary science that involves observing, understanding and predicting weather conditions likely to prevail well in advance (Fig.1.1). The study of meteorology has been around thousands of years, but significant progress did not begin until the 18th century. Climatology is an atmospheric science that focuses on the processes that create weather patterns and variability. Climatology was developed as a science that is based on weather data recorded at multiple locations for comparatively longer periods, usually for 30 years or more. The study of climatology based on the physical processes is influenced by the geographical features, topography and interaction between land and oceans.
1.2. Agricultural Production
Life demands food. The production of food depends upon 4 major factors that are soil, genetic material, management practices and weather. Over a period of time, formers have evolved the cropping strategies based on their local knowledge and experience on the changes in weather within a cropping season. With rapid advances in agricultural sciences, several new varieties of crops were developed, appropriate soil and water management practices were evolved and suitable measures for reducing abiotic and biotic stresses on crops were identified. However, the recent threats of climate change due to increased atmospheric

The atmosphere near Earth’s surface, often referred to as the boundary layer, exhibits unique properties influenced by the interaction between the surface and the atmosphere. These properties are crucial for understanding weather patterns, climate, and various environmental processes. Ancient Indians use to worship five natural elements i.e. earth, water, air, energy and the sky. Perhaps they were aware of the interactive effects and processes between these 5 elements that govern life on earth. In a sense, meteorology itself is a science based on interactive effects of these natural elements. Microclimatology is all about the effect of the interactions between these 5 elements on life over the earth. For a beginner of microclimatology, it is important to understand the properties of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface and get familiar with the concept and terminology used to describe/quantify the physical processes taking place between the lower layers of the atmosphere and the earth’s surface.
2.1. Energy
The major source of energy in the earth atmosphere system is solar energy (Fig.2.1). The outer surface of the sun is very hot and its temperature is estimated to be around 6000°Kelvin (symbol K).
The Kelvin is the base unit of temperature in the international system of units (SI). The Kelvin scale is the absolute temperature scale that begins at the lowest possible temperature that can be attained (absolute zero) taken as 0 degree K. The magnitude or value of each degree of temperature in the Centigrade scale and Kelvin scale is same. The temperature measured in centigrade scale can be converted to Kelvin scale by adding 273.15. The sun emits heat energy in the form of solar radiation. As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets partly depleted before reaching the earth’s surface. The processes through which the solar radiation gets depleted in the

energy plants need to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are used for vegetative and reproductive growth and to increase crop biomass. The solar energy required for photosynthesis is available during day time. In crop canopies radiation is transmitted through leaves and between leaves resulting in changes of spectral composition rapidly with depth. In the absence of vegetation, solar radiation reaches the earth surface after it gets depleted in the atmosphere due to:
• Reflection of incoming radiation by the cloud tops
• Absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone present in the atmosphere and infrared radiation by the greenhouse gases and water vapour
• Scattering of radiation by the solid particles suspended in the atmosphere
The remaining parts of solar radiation called insolation i.e. incoming solar radiation reach the earth surface. After it is incident on the earth surface, a fraction of the solar radiation gets reflected back into the atmosphere. The difference between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation is called net radiation. The net radiation can be calculated using radiation balance which takes into consideration both incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation. The equation for radiation balance can be written as:

    Temperature variations in crop canopies can be affected by number of factors including water availability. When soil water is low, canopy temperature can rise rapidly, even upto 10°C warmer than the air temperature. Irrigation can help reduce canopy temperature, but it may not be able to keep below the threshold for heat damage. Canopy management and row orientation can affect the air temperature within a canopy. Potassium fertilization can reduce canopy temperature variation which can increase seed yield. Temperature affects many plant processes including photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration and flowering. The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature, up to a certain limit. High Photosynthetic rates do not necessarily support high rates of dry matter accumulation may be due to increased respiration. If temperature profiles are measured in crop canopies, normally, it is expected that the temperature may decrease with increase in height and is minimum at the crop canopy in a well irrigated crop during day time. It is mainly due to increase in water vapor content within the crop stand due to soil evaporation. During night time, the temperature decreases with increase in height and temperature of the crop canopy will be more as no transpiration takes place during night time.
4.1. Instability
Atmospheric instability occurs when the earth’s atmosphere is unstable, which leads to highly variable weather patterns. In an unstable atmosphere, there will be rapid changes in temperature, pressure and wind with height (Fig.4.1). The instability is caused by the rising of warm air. Atmospheric instability can lead to the development of thunderstorms, tornadoes and convective clouds. The factors that determine the atmospheric instability are as follows:
4.1.1. Temperature Lapse Rate: Lapse rate is the rate at which the air temperature
changes with altitude. If the air temperature lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is unstable. The rate at which temperature of an air parcel changes with increase in height without loosing or gaining heat from the surrounding environment is called adiabatic lapse rate. In case of adiabatic process, there will be no exchange of heat between the air parcel and surrounding environment when the air parcel moves vertically upwards.
4.1.2. Humidity: The humidity in the air parcel determines whether it cools at
dry or wet adiabatic lapse rate. Therefore, greater the humidity of the air, unstable conditions will increase. When the dry air mass raises vertically upwards, the rate of decrease in temperature with increase in height is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The rate at which the moisture air mass gets cooled with increase in height is called wet adiabatic lapse rate.

If the earth’s surface is perfectly smooth, the wind flows parallel to the earth’s surface without any friction and the wind velocity will be uniform at different heights above the earth’s surface. As the earth’s surface is not smooth, it offers friction, slows down the movement of the wind near the surface. Therefore, the wind velocity increases very slowly with increase in height up to a certain level, and there after the wind velocity increases with increase in height more rapidly (Fig.5.1). When the wind speeds are measured at different heights above the ground and plotted on a graph with height Z in logarithmic scale on y-axis and wind velocity on x-axis, the wind velocity will be zero at certain height above the ground and thereafter the wind velocity uniformly increases with increase in height. The height at which the mean wind velocity is zero due to roughness is called roughness parameter (d). Therefore, the roughness parameter is defined as the height at which mean wind velocity is zero due to roughness of the earth’s surface. In a cropped soil, the crop also obstructs free movement of air. If wind profile measurements are taken in a cropped soil and are plotted on a graph with height on y-axis in logarithmic scale and mean wind velocity on the x-axis, the mean wind velocity will be zero at a height above the roughness parameter. The difference in height (Z-d) at which the wind velocity is zero when the height is plotted on logarithmic scale is called zero plane displacement (Z0). Therefore, the zero plane displacement can be defined as the height by which the roughness parameter increases due to presence of the crop (Fig.5.2).

Microclimate under irrigated conditions and dryland conditions can differ significantly due to variations in water availability, which influences several environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and vegetation cover. The crops are grown both under irrigated and dryland / rainfed situations. The major difference between irrigated and dryland conditions is availability of water. In irrigated areas, the crops are regularly provided with water through irrigation at regular intervals. Under dryland situations, the water availability to the crops depends upon the rainfall and/or stored soil moisture. Under irrigated situations, there are two different possibilities as indicated below:
• vast stretch of irrigated areas
• isolated pockets of irrigated areas in predominantly dry areas. In dryland areas the following possibilities exist:
• humid and moist sub-humid areas where predominantly rice based cropping systems are adopted during rainy season
• per-humid areas where plantation crops and rice grown during rainy season.
• dry sub-humid areas with rice based cropping systems in low lands and finger millet, maize based cropping systems in upland areas
• semi-arid regions where kharif crops are grown during rainy season.
• rabi-crops grown under conserved moisture conditions during post rainy season.
• arid regions where pearl millet based cropping system are practiced during rainy season.
• hill agriculture
The microclimatic conditions are likely to vary between irrigated and rainfed conditions due to different agro-ecological settings. The comparative analyses of microclimatic variation under both conditions are given below:

Forest microclimate is the climate within a forest in contrast to a nearby open area created by a clearing or pasture. A robust observation is that less sunlight reaches the ground in a forest than in open areas, but this depends on the size of the clearing, the height of trees surrounding the clearing, and the location in the clearing (relative to the edge) where measurements are obtained. Daytime temperature is generally lower in forest than in open areas, with greatest differences during the growing season; but this, too, is subject to edge effects and whether the canopy is sparse or dense. Wind near the ground is less than in exposed areas or above the canopy. Another point is that there are various microclimates within a forest canopy. The environment of the forest overstory differs from that of the understory, and this has important consequences for species conservation and protection from climate change. The forest microclimate has important implications for habitat and biodiversity conservation and may act to buffer forest understory organisms from the severity of climate change. Forest microclimates differ not only in contrast with open land, but also vertically with position in the canopy (Fig. 8.1).

There is an increased use of Glass houses and poly houses in commercial agriculture. The glass houses and poly houses provide a controlled environment for plants throughout the year. Some of the aspects of related to the advantages of Glass houses and poly houses are highlighted in the following text:
9.1. Glass houses
Glass houses are also referred as greenhouses. The glass prevents harmful ultraviolet radiations. The glass is transparent to solar radiations of wavelengths up to 300 nm and does not allow long-wave radiations to pass through it (Fig.9.1). Therefore, the Glass houses maintain higher temperature and high relative humidity during daytime as well as nighttime and offer the following advantages:
9.1.1. Controlled Environment: Glass houses facilitate regulation of temperature,
humidity, and light intensity, creating optimum environment for growing various plant species. This is especially beneficial for tropical and sub-tropical plants that require specific conditions to grow and survive.
9.1.2. Protection from Pests and Diseases: The enclosed glass house protects
plants from pests and diseases. The glass house also protects the plants from harsh weather conditions thereby minimizing risk of infestations and environmental stresses. Fig. 9.1: Microclimate management in Glass house
9.1.3. Extended Growing Season: By maintaining stable climate, glass houses
enable cultivation of plants that may not survive outdoors in certain climates thereby extending the growing season for sensitive species.
9.1.4. Research and Conservation: Botanical gardens often use glass houses for
research purposes, studying plant growth, genetics and breeding. The glass houses will also serve as a means for conserving rare or endangered plant species by providing stable environment for propagation. The advantage of glass houses is that the structure has long life span.
9.2. Poly houses
The poly houses are constructed using polythene material. The poly houses protect the plants from wind, cold weather, hail storms, extreme temperatures, insects and pests. The polythene house farming is a popular greenhouse technology due to its low cost of construction and maintenance. Generally, heat accumulation (70 to 75 per cent of solar energy) takes place inside the polyhouse. Solar radiation is allowed to pass through the polythene material and the long wave radiation cannot escape through polythene. The benefits of poly houses are:

A farm microclimate refers to the specific climatic conditions of a small, localized area within a farm. These conditions can differ significantly from the broader regional climate due to various natural and man-made factors. Understanding and managing microclimates is crucial for optimizing crop growth, animal welfare, and overall farm productivity. Modern commercial dairy production requires a special approach to the microclimate on the farm. High quality milk and animal health depend on the conditions of their keeping. At the same time, farm for dairy production for the most part do not have the means to control and manage the microclimate, in contrast to poultry farm. When organizing the correct process of controlling the microclimate, a prerequisite is the presence of an automated system for collecting data. Generally animals adapt to a wide range of weather conditions although their growth and productivity varies with weather conditions. Buffaloes and cows form the main component in dairy industry. The extent to which these animals can adapt to different weather conditions is given below: Successful management of buffalo rearing will be incomplete without wellplanned and adequate housing facilities (Fig.10.1).
Improper planning in the arrangement of animal housing may result in management problems, increase in disease incidence, additional labour charges and hence decrease in the profit of the farmer. During erection of a house for dairy buffaloes, care should be taken to provide comfortable accommodation for individual animals. It is important to ensure:
• Proper sanitation
• Durability
• Abundant supply of clean water
• Arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and
economic conditions.
Buffaloes may be successfully housed under a wide variety of conditions, ranging from close confinement to little restrictions except at milking time. However, two types of farms are in general use.

The fate of smoke from a wild land fire depends in large part on the airflow carrying it away from the fire which can involve a complex interaction of eddies that may occur near the ground or expand beyond the atmospheric mixed layer (Fig.11.1). The buoyancy of smoke and ambient atmospheric conditions determines how high and how quickly the smoke rises, and thus where it travels.
The smoke plume distribution is affected by number of factors as indicated below:
• Elevation: The smoke plumes at higher elevations disperse the smoke particles more vertically while plumes from lover elevations disperse more horizontally.
• Temperature: The large difference between the smoke and surrounding air affects the Plume dynamics. The buoyancy force increases the vertical velocity of the particles, while heat diffusion increases surrounding air temperature.
• Moisture: The presence of moisture can modify the distribution of smoke and chemistry of smoke particles.
• Topography: Topography can influence emissions that remain within the mixing zone.
• Atmospheric stability: Atmospheric stability can affect the distribution of smoke.

During most of the years, there will be loss of agricultural production by at least 15 to 20 per cent per annum due to unfavourable weather situations. The farmers practicing agriculture expect uniform returns every year as the investment costs are much higher and cannot afford loss in production. Of late, the inter-seasonal and intra seasonal variations in weather are very frequent. The weather conditions observed were found to exceed even beyond known limits. Exceptional deviation from any one single weather parameter like air temperature, rainfall and wind can trigger considerable loss in production or sometimes even crop failure (Fig.12.1). Fig. 12.1: Components of a microclimate and its interlinkages Large scale weather modification is not practicable to a greater extent as uniform results cannot be expected under these conditions. There is need to explore cost effective management options that may significantly alter some weather parameter that is detrimental to crop production at field level by the farmers themselves. Therefore, microclimatic modification is an emerging technology to alter or change the unfavourable weather conditions detrimental to crop growth using cost effective and easily manageable techniques for minimizing the loss in crop production. The options for microclimatic modification have to be decided based on whether and the nature of weather aberrations. For example, dry spells are most common during rainy season in most of the arid and semi-arid regions. The farmers growing crops under rainfed conditions suffer considerable loss in production due to occurrence of dry spells as the crop experiences moisture stress. These dry spells may occur any time during the growing season. In such situations, the farmer needs to adopt a management option even before sowing a crop. Sometimes, the occurrence of weather aberration cannot be anticipated and the farmer has to prepare for adopting a management option based on weather forecast. Such measures are temporary and needs to be adopted to ward off the unfavourable weather conditions to a certain extent. Microclimatic modification can be a permanent, seasonal or temporary option depending upon the climate of the region. The crop microclimate refers to the climate just above and within the crop canopy and in the soil root zone that can be influenced by the day-today management practices. Microclimate modification is a measure to change or regulate the weather parameter at farm level. The microclimate management option also depends upon the nature and type of the soil as well.