eChapters

ABSTRACT

The over extraction of water from the coastal environment, results in reduction of groundwater resources which has reflected in lowering of water level. In general, the depletion of water level enhances the landward migration of saltwater wedge. Pondicherry is one such region with recent alluvium as the major litho unit. A study has been attempted to calculate the extraction of water and to estimate the amount of recharge into this alluvial aquifer. The monthly water level fluctuation was observed for the study period in eighteen locations (20002002). The highest water level observed during 2000 was taken as the initial water level for the study and the subsequent decline in water level up to 2001 was monitored monthly until the rising trend was noted. This was taken as the fall in water level due to extraction. Keeping this as the initial value increasing trend was studied until there was a notice of decline in water level. This was taken as the rise in water level due to recharge. The spatial representation of these data in the above said eighteen locations were carried out by using GIS and the area occupied by different water level contours were calculated and the amount of water withdrawn was estimated. The maximum recharge was noted in the central and the northern part of the study area when compared to the other regions. Similarly, the maximum discharge was noted in the northern and the southern part of the study area.

Keywords: Rainfall, Recharge, Groundwater Budget, GIS.

Key words : Groundwater Modelling, GIS, PMWIN, ArcInfo Interface Con2grid, Interface Programme, ArcMacro Language.

Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of irrigation in India and has played a major role in increasing the food production. About 50 per cent of total irrigated area in the country is dependent on groundwater (Central Water Commission (CWC), 2000). Productivity of groundwater is normally more than the surface water due to the fact that it is available at the point of use, requires minimum conveyance infrastructure, is available on demand and maximizes the application efficiency. However, in past few years, excessive and unplanned groundwater pumping in certain parts of the country has resulted in depletion of groundwater resources. Water table in these region is going down day by day and making it beyond the reach of poor farmers. Therefore, keeping the water table in the desirable range is a major concern. This can be achieved by adopting proper pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling has successfully been used for deciding the pumping rate and pumping schedule. Groundwater modelling refers to simulation of groundwater behaviour under varying pumping and recharge conditions. A groundwater model is simply a set of equations, which describe the physical processes active in the aquifer subjected to certain assumptions. While the model itself obviously lacks the detailed reality of the groundwater systems, the behaviour of the validated model approximates that of the aquifer.

Introduction

Water is one of the most complex natural resources demanding a comprehensive understanding of its inherent features in occurrence and distribution for an integrated planning aimed at optimum development for agriculture, health, industry, power, etc. The well being and development of our society is dependent on the availability of water. An increase in groundwater development and utilization for industries and urban water supply has created improper disposal of liquid waste. Defective well constructions, sewage and waste disposal in man made lakes within city, open quarries with water and failure to seal the abandoned wells in city area have provided possible openings for downward movement of polluted water into subsurface formations without undergoing the process of natural filtration.

Abstract

Water is an essential and vital component for our life support system. Drought and floods are the extreme events of rainfall and the vagaries of monsoon and hydrogeological framework in the country are highly variable from place to place. The water resources available in the country are also not uniformly distributed. The changing Landuse pattern and population growth and the resultant water resources development has lead to water stress at many places. In such areas, the extraction of excessive quantities of groundwater has resulted in the drying up of wells, damages of ecosystems, land subsidence, salt-water intrusion and other related problems. Agricultural, urban & industrial wastes are increasingly threatening the groundwater quality, which is likely to become a more serious issue in the coming years. Considering the seriousness of the groundwater contamination, Central Ground Water Board has carried out detailed studies in few hot spots in the state of Tamil Nadu. The issues related to the water resources contamination and the findings of the studies in parts of Tamil Nadu are summarized in this paper.

The growth pole theory was developed by French regional economist, Francois Perroux, in 1955. He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic development and with the process of structural change. Growth pole is a central location of economic activity. It is an urban location where economic activity ignites growth and better quality of life in the urban periphery.

He attempted to explain how modern process of economic growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations and large scale firms.

In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength, and by the nature of their operations.

Scale of operations, dominance and impulses have close relationship to innovate. This is the most important feature of Perroux’s theory and leads to the concepts of dynamic propulsive firm and leading propulsive industry. The dynamic propulsive firm is relatively large and belongs to a relatively fast growing sector. It has a high ability to innovate and intensity of its interrelation with other sectors of the economy is important enough for the induced effects to be transmitted to them.

Gullies convey runoff and sediment from upstream catchments, but uncontrolled flow enlarges their beds and banks, removes productive land, and may ultimately create ravines. Their development depends on rainfall intensity, runoff volume, catchment size, land use, soil properties, topography, and channel characteristics. Effective treatment requires reducing runoff generation, diverting excess water where appropriate, stabilizing the gully, and restoring vegetation. This chapter presents the principles of gully control and classifies interventions into upstream and downstream measures. It discusses agronomic practices, diversion structures, check dams, drop structures, chute spillways, bank protection, revegetation, and maintenance requirements for safely controlling water velocity, erosion, and sediment transport.

Halophytes are salt-resistant or salt-tolerant plants which thrive and complete their life cycles in terrestrial or aquatic habitats having high salt concentrations. Aronson (1989) compiled a partial list of halophytes containing 1560 species in 550 genera and 117 families. Menzel and Lieth (1999) listed as many as 2600 plants under salt tolerant flora. Although halophytes represent only 2% of terrestrial plant species, they are present in about half the higher plant families and represent a wide diversity of plant forms. Because of their diversity, halophytes are regarded as a rich source of potential new crops. Halophytes are tested as vegetables, fodder and oilseed crops under field trials. The oilseed halophyte, Salicornia bigelovii, yields 2 tones/ha of seed containing 28% oil and 31% protein, similar to soybean yield and seed quality.

Introduction

In a technology that consistently maintains a fantastic development curve with capabilities doubling up year-to-year, freezing the hardware specification is not easy or very meaningful. GIS (not geography) owes to its genesis and progress to the developments in information technology front. It may be asserted that any and all upgrade in the hardware industry will only add to its own ability to effectively process more and more data and handle more complex routines. The personal computers of today are seen to be adequate to run typical GIS software. A reference hardware specification is discussed here. GIS software development is an involved process but then the software developers have made good use of hardware capabilities available and have released upgrades consistently. Hardware developments are such that they defy a static spcification. However a reference specification as on 2009. An overview of various software packages used in the past as well as present is attempted. ESRI released a new version in 2002 and claimed that their ArcGIS is an “integrated collection of GIS software products for building a complete GIS that enable users to deploy GIS functionality wherever it is needed, in desktops, servers, or custom applications; over the Web; or in the field.” The details are discussed below. While a number of software overviews are available, this text is not aimed at providing a tutorial to any of the software packages nor do the comparisons made are to promote any particular software. Similarly, it is presumed that the reader is familiar with the hardware elements and functionality. Lot of information about the software packages are available on their respective web sites and the reader is exhorted to look for current, additional and in depth information required in the pages. A brief discussion on Liveware or human resource can be found at the end of the chapter.

Abstract

Agroforestry is an ancient practice that farmers have adopted throughout the world. There are innumerable examples of traditional land use practices combining production of trees and agriculture crops on the same piece of land. In India, the organized agroforestry research began in 1979 when a Seminar on Agroforestry was organized at Imphal by the ICAR, New Delhi. As a follow up to this, ICAR launched an All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was started in 1983. The diagnostic survey and appraisal revealed that there are enumerable agroforestry practices prevalent in different agro- ecological zones of India occupying sizeable areas. However, spatial technologies like Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Positioning System (GPS) have yet to be implemented extensively in this field in India. The spatial technologies have shown great potential in natural resource management through out the world, especially in developed countries in the fields like forest cover mapping, agricultural planning, watershed management, land use planning, etc. In India the agroforestry land use occupy large areas but use of these technologies to estimate area has been initiated in year 2007 with DST sponsored project entitled ‘Spatial and Temporal analysis of agroforestry interventions in North-western India using GIS and Remote Sensing’ The area under agroforestry systems has been estimated/ mapped in two districts viz., Yamunanagar (Haryana) and Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh), where intensive commercial agroforestry was predominant. Besides, the methodology developed as an out come of this study may be replicated for agroforestry systems existing in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Geo-spatial, Mapping, Natural Resources, Remote Sensing.

As we stand at the threshold of this final chapter, “Harvest For Future,” we reflect on the journey that has brought us to this moment. Throughout the preceding chapters, we’ve explored the intricate relationships between rural households, agricultural practices, and the ever-changing climate. We’ve examined the critical role that operational agricultural meteorology plays in empowering rural communities to adapt, innovate, and thrive in the face of uncertainty. From understanding local weather patterns to leveraging climate-resilient agricultural practices, we’ve traversed the complexities of sustainable rural development. Our exploration has taken us through the nuances of climate variability and its impact on agricultural productivity, water management, and soil health. We’ve discussed the importance of effective early warning systems, drought management strategies, and crop insurance programs in mitigating the risks associated with climate-related shocks. We’ve also highlighted the critical role that information and communication technologies can play in disseminating climate information, agricultural advisories, and market intelligence to rural households. Moreover, we’ve examined the human side of sustainable rural development, including the social, economic, and cultural factors that influence decision-making processes within rural households. We’ve looked at the ways in which agricultural meteorology can be used to support climate-resilient agriculture, enhance food security, and promote sustainable livelihoods. Through case studies and examples, we’ve seen how operational agricultural meteorology has been successfully implemented in various parts of the world, leading to improved agricultural productivity, increased incomes, and enhanced resilience among rural households. Now, as we look to the horizon, it’s time to distill the insights, strategies, and lessons learned into a cohesive vision for the future. What does a sustainable rural household look like in the context of a rapidly evolving climate? How can operational agricultural meteorology continue to support and uplift these communities, fostering resilience, equity, and prosperity? In this final chapter, we’ll synthesize the key takeaways from our exploration and chart a course for harnessing the full potential of agricultural meteorology to create a more sustainable, food-secure, and climate-resilient future for rural households worldwide. We’ll explore the opportunities and challenges associated with emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things, and how they can be leveraged to enhance the delivery of climate services to rural households. We’ll also examine the policy and institutional frameworks that are needed to support the widespread adoption of operational agricultural

Whenever the daily maximum temperature exceeds more than average values during summer season the heat wave will occur. Similarly, whenever the daily minimum temperature falls below the average values cold wave will occur. The India Meteorological department has developed the criteria to identify the occurrence the heat waves and cold waves.

11.1 Heat Waves

Heat wave is defined as the condition when the daily maximum temperature is 45ºC or more. Based on departure from normal daily maximum temperature of 40ºC onwards the heat waves are defined as follows:

Metals

Metals are ubiquitous in the modern industrialized environment. Heavy metals like cadmium, iron, molybdenum, lead, nickel, tin and zinc are present in the environment in trace concentrations. These metals are universally present in soil, water, air and biota (Freedman, 1995). Global anthropogenic heavy metal inputs to ecosystem through air, water and soil have increased substantially world wide over last century (Nriagu, 1996).

This chapter introduces the evolution of forestry from traditional human dependence on forest resources to a multidisciplinary scientific field concerned with ecological, economic, and social objectives. It traces the development of scientific forestry in Europe and its expansion into India, including the influence of German and French forestry systems. The chapter examines the establishment of forest administration, forest legislation, and the changing role of forestry during the colonial and post-independence periods. It also discusses the evolution of national forest policies, farm forestry, social forestry, participatory forest management, forestry education, and contemporary conservation frameworks. The chapter highlights the transition from production-oriented forestry toward sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, community participation, and climate resilience.

1.1 Introduction
The concept of invention is the fundamental requirement for design thinking. Since the birth of mankind, people started inventing many concepts, which are mainly observations of facts and innovation of ideas for producing products that are useful to the society. The design thinking requires unconventional thinking to design processes for maximal operational efficiency of manufacturing the products, which give maximum satisfaction to customers with more value for money. Hence, the team that is involved in the design thinking projects may gain the required skills by knowing several inventions of the past. Hence, a review of inventions is presented in this chapter.
1.2 Tracing Inventions
The content at https://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html gives a complete account of inventions starting from 4–5 billion years ago up to 2022. The article on solar cell energy gives an account of the sun started producing energy. About 1.2 million years ago, humans invented fire, which has been further innovated for biofuels, candles, IC engines, aviation engines, etc. In the 7th century B.C., ants were killed by burning in the heat produced by concentrated sun rays using magnifying lens. Greeks and Romans utilised burning mirrors to light candles during religious ceremonies in the third century B.C. About 3.5 million years ago, stone, wood, antlers, and bones were used by humans to make first kind of tools. These were further improved to make tools for machines. About 4000 BCE back, iron was used to make decorative ornaments. About 3500 BCE, people invented the concept of wheel, which brought quantum revolution in transportation.

Key words : Horticultural Resource Information System. INARIS.

Introduction

Wide ranging Indian climatic conditions are well suited for boosting production of a variety of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, flower/ornamental/medicinal and aromatic crops) which presently hold an important position in the global scenario. Development was at a very low ebb till the Third Five-Year Plan and increased significantly since the Seventh Five Year Plan (Rs.10,000 millions plan outlay). Government of India established National Horticultural Board (NHB) in 1984 and Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) in 1986 to facilitate its larger development. The outlay is expected to increase even more in the Tenth Plan. Significant progress has been made in area expansion of different horticultural crops resulting in higher production. Besides, use of modern technologies has also brought about improvement in productivity. More than 50 per cent increase in production is seen in many of the horticulture crops during last one decade.

The efficient planning and implementation of different developmental programs on horticultural crops depends on production parameters like soil suitability, varietals dominance, marketable surplus, marketing channels, post harvest handling practices, cost of cultivation and market availability for sustained production. In addition, information on latest technologies developed by various research organizations on horticultural improvement, production, protection and post-harvest technologies are needed to be collected and made available to the scientists, planners and managers working in the related fields. But the available information on this aspect is scattered and the database is too weak to provide adequate support for developmental strategies. The digitization of comprehensive database on horticultural crops will definitely enhance the pace of increasing the area, production, productivity and promoting industry of horticultural crops that have taken lead in the new millennium with reference to nutritional quality of food and export potential. A strong, well-knit database to support need-based, market-driven and cost-effective horticultural development is imperative. Therefore, under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) a Mission Mode Sub-project on “Integrated National Agricultural Resources Information System (INARIS)” has been taken up to evolve a comprehensive computerized data management system on various agricultural resources like crops, animals, fishes and natural resources by harnessing RDBMS and GIS. The Co-operating Center at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has developed the “Horticultural Resources Information System” with the objectives of (i) integrating existing databases in horticulture, (ii) designing and developing a comprehensive database in horticulture and (iii) developing resource maps of major horticultural crops in the country by integrating attribute and spatial data through GIS. In addition to simple storage and retrieval it will include other functions such as manipulation and dissemination of information to various users. This database will be integrated with 13 other Co-operating Centers dealing with different agricultural resources through a virtual private network (VPN). The Lead Center at Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi provide warehouse facility with a capability to analyze the data variously and provide report as cubes, tables and graphs to form a national database to cater to the needs of the users through a website. The facility of retrieving information as value-added maps using GIS will also be built in.

Introduction
Horticulture, the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, is a vital component of agriculture that contributes significantly to food security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of horticulture, exploring its various branches, including fruit and vegetable production, floriculture, landscape design, and greenhouse management. Horticulture is unique in its integration of scientific principles, artistic design, and business acumen, making it a dynamic and multifaceted field.
The chapter begins by introducing the fundamental concepts of horticulture and its importance in modern agriculture. It delves into the specifics of fruit and vegetable production, emphasizing the techniques and practices that enhance yield and quality. Floriculture and landscape design are also discussed, highlighting the aesthetic and environmental benefits of ornamental plants. The chapter further explores post-harvest handling and storage, crucial aspects that ensure the longevity and marketability of horticultural products.
In addition to traditional practices, the chapter addresses modern horticultural techniques, such as greenhouse management, which plays a crucial role in extending growing seasons and improving crop quality. Sustainable horticultural practices are also emphasized as key strategies for addressing global challenges like climate change and food security.
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture that focuses on the cultivation, production, and management of plants, particularly fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. This chapter explores various aspects of horticulture, including an introduction to horticulture, fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape design, and post-harvest handling and storage. Horticulture plays a vital role in agriculture, encompassing the science and art of growing plants for food, aesthetics, and environmental enhancement. This chapter delves into the exciting world of horticulture, exploring the cultivation and management of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. Horticulture combines scientific knowledge, practical skills, and artistic creativity to maximize plant growth, yield, and aesthetic appeal. By studying horticulture, we can gain insights into the principles and practices that contribute to successful fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape