eChapters

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

Ever since the dawn of civilization, dependence on plants has been indispensable for human survival. Transformation from food gathering to settled agriculture necessitated domestication of plant species useful for mankind leading to co-evolution of plants and man in absolute harmony with nature. Natural disasters like famines, floods, epidemics have often led people to search new plant species for human consumption. Out of an estimated total of 80,000 plants of possible economic use, about 30,000 plants have been found to be edible in nature and approximately 7,000 plants have been cultivated by mankind at one time or the other, of which only 158 plants are widely used for food (Wilson, 1992). Among these, 30 crops provide 90% of the world’s food and only 10 crops supply 75% of the world’s food budget. Out of the above only three crops, rice, wheat and maize provide 60% of the world’s total food requirement (Paroda, 2000). This dangerously narrow level of food base may imperil the existence of mankind during a time of impending crisis in unforeseen times in the future.

The intricate relationship between weather, climate, and agriculture dictates food security and the livelihoods of countless communities across the globe. In this context, public awareness of agricultural meteorology – the science of how weather and climate impact agricultural practices and outcomes – is not merely informative; it is transformative. This chapter delves into the critical role of fostering understanding and knowledge of agrometeorological principles among the broader public, with a particular focus on empowering farming communities. By exploring the significance of making weather and climate information accessible, relevant, and actionable, we will examine the strategies, initiatives, and global efforts aimed at building a weather-literate agricultural sector (Fig. 15.1). Ultimately, enhanced public awareness in this domain equips individuals and communities with the tools to make informed decisions, mitigate risks, adapt to changing climatic conditions, and contribute to more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems worldwide.

7.1 Economics and Valuation of ghgs emissions

Since the late 20^th century, it has been largely accepted that cause of high concentration of GHGs in atmosphere is induced by human activities. Greenhouse gas emissions and related climate change has opened up debate on overall economic losses and ways to reduce these loses. Moreover, apart from curbing monetary losses; the global political leaders as well as reputed economists are looking towards making money by saving the emissions. Recently, the researchers have started to emphasize on the actual value added to the ecosystem by curbing emissions, discrete of the economic benefits. This section will discuss the economics and ecosystem services related to the management of GHG emissions.

Origin

The initiative to curb the emissions started in 1992 with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The Convention took place from 3 to 14 June, 1992. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty designed to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. The UNFCCC had non-binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and the framework was only meant for formulating precise international treaties (called “Protocols” or “Agreements”). It contained no execution mechanisms, however, it considered some negotiations and suggestions to formulate the action plans and regulation guidelines under UNFCCC to fulfill the objective of reduction of GHG emissions to the desired level.

Introduction

Watershed management has emerged as an important research area in recent years. Understanding the morphology of the catchment is one of the widely used methods for watershed management. Morphometry is the measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s surface, shape, and dimension of its landforms (Agarwal 1998; Obi Reddy et al., 2002). The study of watershed is very useful in drainage basin evaluation, silt erosion control, flood frequency analysis, watershed prioritization, natural resources management, and conservation (Waikar and Nilawar, 2014). The significance of morphometric analysis is highlighted in the basins that are either un-gauged or difficult to access. The morphometry is usually analyzed through measurement of linear, aerial, relief, gradient of channel network, and contributing ground slope of the basin (Magesh et al., 2012). The hydrological behavior of a basin can be easily determined through the areal parameters (Mahala, 2020.) The evolutionary history of any basin can be best understood through the implication of different relief morphometric measures of drainage basin (Sharma and Sarma, 2013).

GIS and RS techniques are proven convenient methods for morphometric characterization of sub-watersheds and prioritization of watersheds. As the satellite images provide a synoptic view of a large area, the RS and GIS methods become very useful in the analysis of drainage basin morphometry (Rai et al., 2017). Thus, the morphometric analysis using spatial techniques has emerged to be the fast and efficient method as compared to most of the conventional methods (Rao et al., 2010) such as manual extraction of drainage network and assigning the stream order from a published Survey of India topographic map. The present study aims at using remote sensing and GIS technology to compute various parameters of morphometric characteristics of the Chaliyar River basin.

energy plants need to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are used for vegetative and reproductive growth and to increase crop biomass. The solar energy required for photosynthesis is available during day time. In crop canopies radiation is transmitted through leaves and between leaves resulting in changes of spectral composition rapidly with depth. In the absence of vegetation, solar radiation reaches the earth surface after it gets depleted in the atmosphere due to:
• Reflection of incoming radiation by the cloud tops
• Absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone present in the atmosphere and infrared radiation by the greenhouse gases and water vapour
• Scattering of radiation by the solid particles suspended in the atmosphere
The remaining parts of solar radiation called insolation i.e. incoming solar radiation reach the earth surface. After it is incident on the earth surface, a fraction of the solar radiation gets reflected back into the atmosphere. The difference between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation is called net radiation. The net radiation can be calculated using radiation balance which takes into consideration both incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation. The equation for radiation balance can be written as:

Radioactive pollution is largely attributable to radioactivity, a natural property of certain elements, such as radium, uranium, thorium, etc. of spontaneously emitting protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) through the disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is akin to a helium nucleus. Alpha particles travel at a very slow speed, whereas gamma rays propagate at the speed of light. The alpha particles have less penetration power than the beta and gamma rays. In human tissues, alpha particles can penetrate up to a depth of about 0.005 to 0.008 cm. The gamma rays, on the other hand, are the most penetrating and can easily pass through a human body without striking anything in between. The high penetration power of gamma rays is because they have no charge; therefore, they do not interact with anything as the charged alpha particles would do

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

Real-time crop monitoring for efficient climate guidance extends beyond monsoon-dependent regions and holds significant importance in a global agricultural context. While the fundamental technologies and principles remain similar, the specific applications and benefits are tailored to the diverse agricultural systems and climates worldwide.
10.1. Global Applicability Across Diverse Agricultural Systems
• Rain-fed Agriculture (Beyond Monsoons): In semi-arid and arid regions globally, where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable, real-time monitoring of soil moisture and plant stress through remote sensing and ground sensors is crucial for optimizing the limited water resources and implementing drought management strategies (Fig.10.1).
• Irrigated Agriculture: Even in systems relying on irrigation, real-time monitoring helps optimize water usage based on actual crop needs and prevailing weather conditions, preventing over-irrigation and conserving water, a critical resource globally.
• Temperate and High-Latitude Agriculture: In these regions, real-time monitoring can track temperature fluctuations, frost risks (as you researched previously), and the impact of shorter growing seasons on crop development, allowing for timely interventions like frost protection or adjustments to planting schedules.
• Tropical Agriculture: Beyond monsoons, tropical regions often face challenges like high humidity and pest/disease pressure. Real-time monitoring of leaf wetness and other microclimate factors aids in targeted pest and disease management, reducing the need for broad-spectrum applications.

ABSTRACT

Pests and diseases cause serious economic losses in yield and quality of many cultivated crops. Detection and assessment of their damage symptoms is very crucial to initiate timely control interventions. The conventional scouting technique adopted for assessment of pest and disease in field crops is very laborious and time consuming. Remote sensing may provide a better means to objectively quantify disease stress than visual methods and it can be used to repeatedly collect sample measurements non-destructively and non-invasively. In this paper we report the changes in the reflectance spectra due to pest and disease incidence in three crops viz., groundnut, castor and rice. Canopy reflectance measurements were made with a hand held multispectral radiometer (MSR 16-R, CropScan Inc) which records incoming radiation and light reflectance with up looking and down looking sensors, respectively in 16 pass bands. Data of percent reflectance at each pass band were processed subsequently using the calibration and correlation constants through a mini computer connected to the sensor. A total of 10 samples were selected for each level of pest/disease. At each sampling, six measurements were recorded and the resulting data were averaged. The reflectance spectra varied for different biotic stresses in the three test crops. Higher absorption in the NIR region between 760-1240 nm was observed for healthy plants compared to the diseased plants in all the three crops tested. The spectral signatures from severely defoliated (by semilooper pest) castor crop showed that the percent reflectance in the visible region between 560-710 nm was higher in the defoliated crop compared to healthy and reverse is true in the NIR region between 810-1100 nm. In case of rice, spectral reflectance in the region between 760-1100 nm could differentiate the healthy and brown plant hopper affected plants. Decrease in reflectance in this region was proportion to the number of hoppers per plant. This could be due to collapse of leaf tissues by hopper damage. The higher reflectance in the visible region (560-710 nm) was observed only when the damage is very severe (hopper burn). Different spectral indices viz., SR (simple ratio), NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index), NPCI (normalized total pigment to chlorophyll index), DWSI (disease water stress index) and WBI (water band index) were compared to distinguish healthy and diseased plants. NDVI was found useful in distinguishing semilooper damaged (defoliated) castor crop from healthy castor. All the indices tested were useful to differentiate the rice plants damaged by sap-sucking pest, BPH at different levels of infestation. Incase of groundnut, the differences in the spectral indices between different disease incidence levels were not significant. Results of the present study demonstrated that by comparing the reflectance spectra generated using ground based high-resolution radiometer, it is possible to distinguish healthy and pest/disease affected crops.

Soil regeneration is about bulding or making topsoil. It is a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology is the act/idea of replenishingthe top soil with beneficial nutrients casing natural methods. Time required from inorganic to organic would be about 60 to 200 days depending upon the situation. Once the inorganic fertilization is stopped, following actions facilitate quick conversion:

• Apply Farm yard/Poultry manure available in the farm as a basal dressing.
• Sow 25 kg of multi varietal seeds (MVS) in one acre.
• Allow it to grow up to 60 days.
• Inoculate the soil with the bio-agents like Azospirillum, Phosphobacterium, Pseudomonas flouresens, Trichoderma viride on 30 days after sowing (DAS).
• Incorporate in situ 60 DAS (30 t ha^-1 biomass is generated on 60 DAS) green manures.

Regenerative agriculture is a transformative approach to farming that prioritizes soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, while also increasing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. This holistic method of farming is designed to regenerate the health of the entire ecosystem, rather than just focusing on maximizing food production alone. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can improve soil fertility, enhance water quality, and promote biodiversity, ultimately leading to more resilient and productive farming systems. Regenerative agriculture involves being highly attentive to the needs of the soil, crops, and ecosystem as a whole. Alert farming requires farmers to be vigilant and responsive to changes in weather patterns, soil moisture levels, and crop health, making adjustments as needed to optimize crop yields and minimize environmental impact. This approach involves using advanced technologies, such as precision agriculture and data analytics, to monitor and manage farm operations in real-time, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and respond quickly to emerging challenges. The benefits of regenerative agriculture are numerous. Not only can it improve crop yields and promote sustainable agricultural practices, but it can also enhance ecosystem services, support biodiversity, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can play a critical role in creating a more sustainable food system, one that prioritizes the health of both people and the planet .
4.1 Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) versus Regenerative Agriculture (RA)
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Regenerative Agriculture (RA) are two approaches (Fig. 4.1) to sustainable agriculture that share some similarities, but also have distinct differences

Expanding on the importance of understanding monsoons from a regional perspective, Chapter 4, “Regional Phenomena Exerting Influence on Monsoons in Different Regions,” takes a closer look at the unique fingerprints that specific geographical features and localized climate dynamics leave on these vital weather systems around the world. While Chapter 3 provided the grand narrative of globalscale influencers, this chapter delves into the intricate details of how monsoons are fine-tuned and often dramatically altered by the characteristics of the land and oceans they interact with on a regional level. Consider, for instance, the colossal impact of the Tibetan Plateau’s summer heating on the Indian Summer Monsoon. The intense solar radiation absorbed by this vast elevated landmass creates a powerful upper-level heat source, driving a strong low-pressure system that acts like a vacuum, pulling in the moistureladen winds from the Indian Ocean that deliver the life-sustaining rains to the subcontinent. Similarly, in North America, the development of the North American Monsoon Anticyclone, a large high-pressure system aloft, plays a crucial role in steering moisture from both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico into the arid Southwest, transforming parched landscapes into vibrant green during the summer months. We will also explore phenomena like the Saharan Heat Low, a thermal low-pressure system over the vast desert that is instrumental in drawing in the rain-bearing southwesterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean to fuel the West African Monsoon, a lifeline for numerous nations. Furthermore, the chapter will examine the regional oceanic influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole and how the temperature differences between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean can significantly modulate the strength and distribution of rainfall during the Indian monsoon and in neighboring regions. Through a series of regional case studies, this chapter will illuminate the diverse ways in which local geography, land surface characteristics, and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulations act as critical modifiers of global monsoon patterns. This detailed exploration underscores the necessity of understanding these regional nuances for accurate forecasting, effective water resource management, and the development of tailored strategies to cope with the inherent variability of monsoons in different parts of our planet.

Introduction 
Crop-weather models are sophisticated constructs, meticulously designed to replicate the dynamic and intricate interplay among atmospheric conditions, complex soil processes, nuanced plant physiology, and the decisive influence of human management interventions. The agricultural system is a prime example of a highly interconnected and non-linear system, where changes in one component can ripple through and affect many others, often with time lags and feedback loops. To truly comprehend, effectively design, rigorously develop, and clearly communicate the inner workings of such multifaceted simulations, relying solely on dense textual descriptions or abstract mathematical equations can prove daunting and often insufficient. This is precisely where relationship diagrams emerge as indispensable tools. At their core, relationship diagrams are powerful visual representations that translate the abstract scientific concepts and mathematical formulations embedded within crop-weather models into intuitive graphical formats. They are essentially the architectural blueprints and flowcharts of these complex systems, allowing us to see, rather than just read, how various components of the agricultural ecosystem interact. Imagine trying to understand the intricate wiring of a skyscraper or the precise movements of a symphony orchestra purely from a written description; diagrams provide the essential visual mapping that brings clarity and coherence to complexity. These diagrams are not mere aesthetic additions; they are fundamentally required because of the inherent complexity and interdisciplinary nature of crop modeling. They bridge critical gaps: Bridging Disciplinary Gaps: Agricultural system modeling brings together experts from diverse fields – agronomists who understand plant responses, meteorologists who provide weather insights, soil scientists who grasp soil physics and chemistry, and computer scientists who implement the models.

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

"Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in the Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over).

Abstract

The Remote Sensing and the followed up field based investigations show that the Tamil Nadu coast, India, is facing series of geoenvironmental problems due to tectonic movements and morphodynamic processes. Such problems pose a challenge to the engineering geologists. The paper discusses such challenging engineering geological problems and plausible remedial measures.