eChapters

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

This chapter reviews the research work done in the fields related to the objectives of the study. In any scientific investigation or research a comprehensive review of relevant literature is very essential. Its main function apart from determining the work done before concerning the problem area i.e. area of investigation, it provides an insight into the methods and procedures and create a basis for interpretation of findings. As direct references on all the item are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use.
2.1. Ecosystem Services and Conservation Agriculture
Acharya, S. K. and Chatterjee, R. (2019) found that conservation agriculture may help in re-building agro-ecology by maintaining carbon sequestration, maintaining soil health, checking soil erosion and ground water depletion, energy balance, mitigating climate change related problems through maintaining ecosystem services.
Ayyam, V., Palanivel, S., and Chandrakasan, S. (2019) stated that CA embraces higher rates of carbon sequestration, organic matter accumulation, soil erosion reduction, and its associated improvement in soil biological properties. Additionally, there is reduction in greenhouse gas emission as a result of CA. Adoption of CA-based farming practices particularly in areas facing notable land degradation and depleting natural resources delineates a win-win scenario due to improved crop yield and trends of increasing soil fertility and scope for climate change adaptation to recuperate degraded soils and improve ecosystem services.

River-training works guide and regulate the flow of a river to achieve a stable channel alignment, protect banks, improve navigation, prevent erosion, and reduce flood damage. Rivers naturally change their course through sediment deposition, bank cutting, meandering, and variations in discharge. Engineering interventions must therefore account for hydraulic forces, sediment movement, channel morphology, and long-term river behaviour. This chapter defines river training and explains its objectives, benefits, limitations, and key design principles. It discusses guide banks, groynes or spurs, embankments, revetments, pitching, launching aprons, cut-offs, and related protective works. It also considers structural placement, classification, construction materials, maintenance, and environmental consequences.

The term robot is czech word, first time used by play write Karel Capek, in year 1920, applicable to the forced labour or serfs or slaves. The first commercial, digital and programmable robot, named ‘Unimate’ was built by George Devol in 1954.

INTRODUCTION

Mizoram is a hilly terrain lying in the north eastern part of the country. The total geographical area of the state is 21, 087 sq. km and lies between 92º 15/ to 93º 29/ E longitude and 21º 58/ to 24º 35/ N latitude. Out of six agro climatic zones of the NEH region, Mizoram comes under sub tropical hill zone and posses a sub tropical and humid climate due to high rainfall (Fig. 1). These climatic conditions are very conducive for the cultivation of a large number of agri-horticultural crops. The physiography of the state is divided into hills and valley lands. About 90 % area of the state comes under hills and only 10 % area is under valley. The valley lands are sporadically distributed in small patches except in Champhai district. The slope of the hills in Mizoram is much steep as compared to the other states in the North Eastern region. The land use statistics of the state is presented in Table1.

2.1 Introduction

Automation of agricultural field with IoT and microcontroller is new era of technology. Arduino based solution to agricultural field is open source platform. It can be used for developing data loggers and new sensors environment. The rate of solutions with Arduino and sensors is high as it is open source platform. The use of Arduino in agriculture can accelerate the growth of automation. Arduino can be interfaced with sensors like:

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Soil Moisture
• Water Pressure
• Water Flow and Water Metering
• Rain Gauge

Introduction

Global warming needs a shift to automobile solutions that reduces/ do not produce greenhouse gas emissions. Automobile related pollution is the major source for reduction in air quality in Indian cities. India need to reduce dependency on a fossil- fuel and reduced transportation related emissions. People living in some of the Indian cities are being affected by noise pollution and electric vehicles may contribute to a reduction in noise pollution levels in the cities. Energy efficiency and emissions are two important contributing factors in transportation across the globe.

Introduction

India was a self-sufficient nation in its food production before independence but after the occurrence of various famines, the government in late 1960s started focusing more on the crop production i.e.,green revolution (NAAS 2019). Use of hybrids, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals increased and major investments were made on irrigation structures which led to a massive jump in the production of crops. But with time, the negative externalities caused by green revolution were vividly noticeable. The indiscriminate use of chemicals has debilitated the environment by causing soil depletion, pollution, deforestation, climate change etc. thus affecting the health of human kind. The lofty prices of inputs led the farmers to resort to debt thus falling into debt trap and suicides. In order to address this problem an alternative to the conventional farming is required which is more sustainable and climate resilient. In the mid-1990s, natural farming viz., Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) was demonstrated by Sh. Subhash Palekar also known Subash Palekar Natural Farming (SPNF). It is an agroecology based diversified farming system which involves no financial outlay to purchase essential from outside and makes farming profitable. Mishra (2018) studied on Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) and found that crops grown under ZBNF evinced higher yield than the crops grown under non-ZBNF.

12.1 Introduction

The concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere has been rising from historical levels, primarily due to fossil-fuel burning and land-use changes. These gases have the potential to trap energy from the sun, which may result in global warming, and this has sparked a world-wide concern that emissions of these gases should be reduced below the 1990 levels by the year 2012 (Kyoto Protocol). The international community has recognized the need to stabilize/reduce CO₂ and other GHG emission. The types of farm power, farm equipment and machinery have a significant influence on intensification and optimization outcomes, and on profit. However, until now, agricultural intensification generally had a negative effect on the quality of many of the essential resources such as soil, water, land, biodiversity and the ecosystem services which caused a decline in the yield and factor productivity growth rates. Another challenge to agriculture is its environmental food print and climate change. Agriculture is responsible for about 30% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, while being directly affected by the consequences of a changing climate. It is estimated that global conversion of all croplands to conservation tillage (CT) could sequester 5 billion tones of carbon annually.

In India significant efforts are underway to develop and popularize agricultural machinery and tools for resource conservation through the combined efforts of several State and National Institutions, particularly Rice-Wheat Consortium for Indo Gangetic Plains. The new technologies are encouraging the farmers to take up innovative ways of managing their resources for higher productivity and also providing a way to the scientific community to solve emerging problems of climate change. The farm machinery in conservation agriculture (CA) can reduce the emissions of fossil fuels compared to conventional agriculture by up to 60%. However, the largest contribution to mitigate climate change with CA can be obtained from carbon (C) sequestration and the storage of atmospheric carbon in the soil. The C -sink potential of soils varies depending on climate and production system. On an average 0.1-0.5 t. ha^-l y^-l of organic carbon can be sequestered under humid temperate conditions. Farm equipments like straw shavers and rotavators play a role in residue incorporation in the soil.

The role of farmers in Citizen Science is a rapidly evolving field that holds tremendous promise for transforming the way we approach agricultural research and development. By leveraging the knowledge, expertise, and experiences of farmers, Citizen Science initiatives can help address some of the complex challenges facing agriculture today, from climate change and soil degradation to water scarcity and pest management.
One of the key benefits of involving farmers in Citizen Science is that it allows for the integration of local knowledge and expertise into the research process. Farmers have a deep understanding of their land, crops, and ecosystems, which can provide valuable insights into the complex relationships between agriculture, environment, and society. By tapping into this knowledge, researchers can develop more effective and sustainable solutions to agricultural challenges.
Another advantage of farmer-led Citizen Science is that it can help to increase the relevance and effectiveness of research. By involving farmers in the design and implementation of research projects, researchers can ensure that their work is addressing the real-world needs and concerns of agricultural communities. This can help to bridge the gap between research and practice, and ensure that scientific knowledge is translated into practical solutions that benefit farmers and their communities.
Furthermore, the involvement of farmers in Citizen Science can also help to promote greater equity and inclusivity in agricultural research. By providing opportunities for farmers to participate in research, Citizen Science initiatives can help to empower marginalized communities and promote social justice. This can be particularly important in developing countries, where smallholder farmers often lack access to resources, information, and decision-making power. In addition, farmer-led Citizen Science can also contribute to the development of more sustainable and environmentally-friendly agricultural practices. By working together with researchers and other stakeholders, farmers can help to identify and promote practices that reduce environmental degradation, conserve natural resources, and promote ecosystem services.
Overall, the role of farmers in Citizen Science has the potential to transform the way we approach agricultural research and development. By leveraging the knowledge, expertise, and experiences of farmers, we can develop more effective, sustainable, and equitable solutions to the complex challenges facing agriculture today.

Abstract

Rice being the major food crop in the world requires a serious attention to protect the crop from variable pest attack under change in climatic scenario. More then 100 species of insects have been recored as rice pest affecting the productivity as well as maintaining sustainability in rice production. Bio-control agents for the control of rice pests are to be systematically evaluted. More than 1500 species of pathogens are formulated as microbiological insecticides. So our current awareness in pest- pathogen-abiotic interactions should be made use in designing the crop protection strategy.

Introduction
Human activity on the environment is the root cause of many environmental issues. The standard of the environment we live in must be each of our own concerns. The quality of our surroundings can be enhanced or degraded by our individual actions. As a result, people must feel obligated to preserve the environment by leading ethical and ecologically conscious lives.
Conservation
best possible use of human, environmental, and cultural resources in national development programs. The Latin terms “servare” (keep watch) and “con” (together) denote this.
Conservation Goals
1. Preservation of the environment’s quality.
2. Assure a steady supply of valuable material. Role of Individuals in Conserving Resources
The Diversity of Life
1. Gain an appreciation for all living things.
2. Make regular efforts to plant trees.
3. Cut back on the amount of wood and paper goods you use, recycle paper goods, and purchase recycled goods.

Introduction
The rapid advancement of information technology in recent years has led to an explosion in the awareness of environmental concerns and issues pertaining to human health. UNEP created UNEP net, the green global Internet, as well as the satellite communication system.
Information technology is necessary for environmental management.
The general population, especially in developing nations, and decision- and policymakers still have limited or no access to this information in a readily comprehensible format. Politicians and the general public have not yet been able to personally experience the effects of ozone layer depletion, climate change, or biodiversity loss. These are all new challenges, and scientists strongly advise taking more immediate action than legislators are able to. Thus, it is more crucial than ever to close the knowledge gap between scientists and decision-makers in order to formulate environmental policy.
UNEP created the Global Resource Information Database in 1985 in an effort to close this information gap and give the world’s population access to current, trustworthy environmental data. Telecommunications and geographic information technology were used as strategic tools to do this, with the former being used for information exchange and analysis and the latter for information distribution.

Land resources units or major land resources units are the suitable segmentations of land, based on available natural resources, their potential use and management. Irrespective of terms used by different organizations or institutes, these units have spatial dimension and represent a composite unit for interstate, regional, and national level planning. A typical meaning of these land units can be related to terms like land system. Christian and Stewart (1953) of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia devised the ‘Land system’ as the composite mapping-unit which has been defined as “an area or group of areas, throughout which there is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation”. This system is based on the premise that the land system is expressed on aerial photographs by a distinctive pattern and, as such, the land system can be directly mapped from aerial photographs (Christian and Stewart 1953, Mabbutt and McAlpine 1965). It is a fact that during those period, aerial photographs were more frequently used and studies related to land systems used technique of aerial photogrammetry. As per USDA (United States Developmental Agency), the typical segmentations are; (1) Land Resource Region (LRR), which is the highest level in the hierarchy (2) Major Land Resource Area (MLRA), the second highest level and generally representing broad landforms or a geologic region at a small scale and (3) the Land Resource Unit (LRU).

1. Introduction
The world’s ecosystem is facing significant challenges because of risingpopulations, more urbanization, and industrialization (Juwarkar et al.,2014). Significant environmental contamination has been caused by moderncivilizations, industrialization, population increase, intensive agriculturalpractices, human activities, and technological advancement (Lalevic et al.,2016).

The agricultural sector is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the increasing use of digital technologies, such as precision agriculture, drones, and satellite imaging. One of the key outcomes of this transformation is the generation of vast amounts of data, which can be used to inform decision-making, improve crop yields, and enhance the overall efficiency of agricultural operations. Farmers, researchers, and policymakers require effective tools and strategies for managing and analyzing these data to extract valuable insights and inform decision-making. This is where Farmers’ Data Base Management and Analysis comes into play (Fig.6.1).
6.1 Importance of Data Management and Analysis in Agriculture
6.1.1 Effective Data Management and Analysis are Critical in Agriculture, as they Enable
• Improved crop yields: Data analysis can help identify optimal planting dates, irrigation schedules, and fertilizer applications, leading to increased crop yields and better quality crops.

1. Introduction
Oil spills are defined as the unintentional release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment, predominantly impacting marine ecosystems. This form of pollution, often caused by human activities, can also occur onterrestrial landscapes. Spills typically result from the discharge of crude oilfrom sources such as tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs, and wells, aswell as from refined petroleum products like gasoline and diesel (Smith etal., 2019). While such incidents are primarily accidental, they may arise fromvarious circumstances, including inadequate storage or poor maintenance,leading tocontainerleaks. Historically, one of the earliest documented oil spillsoccurred in 1907 in Batum, a region then part of the Russian Empire (moderndayBatumi, Georgia). This incident, involving a collision between an oil-ladenship and another vessel in the Black Sea, marked the beginning of recorded oilspill events, though historical records from that time remain limited (Johnsonet al., 2021). The consequences of oil spills are profound, affecting both theenvironment and the economy. On the ocean’s surface, oil disrupts aquaticecosystems by blocking sunlight penetration and depleting dissolved oxygenlevels, which are vital for marine life. Crude oil compromises the insulating andwaterproofing properties of fur and feathers, leading to hypothermia and deathin oil-coated birds and marine mammals. Additionally, ingesting oil can causeseveretoxicity, while damage to habitats and reproductive systems often delaysthe long-term recovery of affected species. Coastal vegetation, particularly inecosystems such as saltwater marshes and mangroves, is also highly vulnerable

3.1 Introduction

Internet of Things (IoT) allows computational devices and sensory support to connect with each other and access services on the Internet. The IoT idea was introduced to connect devices through the Internet and facilitate access to information for users. The potential application of IoT includes agriculture. The aim of this chapter is to explain the role of NodeMCU in the agriculture field. NodeMCU is IoT module which can be used to present the IoT concept as a basis for monitoring and control. The systems used in farm production processes. NodeMCU play a key role, with a focus on their realization by available microcontroller platforms and appropriate sensors. IoT based system provides opportunity to users to monitor and control the process remotely.

Introduction

The Rispana river is a order of stream forming a tributary of Ganga. Its watershed covers an area of approximately 53.6 Km in the northern part of Dehradun city lies between 78^º30’ to 78^º15⁰’ longitude and 30^º15’ to 30^º 30’ latitude in top sheet No is 1/3. The area is covered in IRS - IC Pan of 13 Jan 1998 and LISS-III of 7 March 1997.

The Doon Valley is enriched with numerous seasonal and perennial streams. Which forms the lifetime or the inhabitants . The Rispana river is the part of the Ganga system of Drainage of the valley. The river originates from the Mussoorie hills, which are full of natural springs. The droplets from the springs collect and form numerous streamlets and these streamlets are joined to be these and they form the famous Shekhar Falls (north of Shahanshai Ashram about 5 Km away). Then the Rispana flows along Rajpur road over the Doon Gravels and then river passes through the tiny hamlets Nalapani, Raipur, Chanderroad, Defence colony, Amwala, Tapowan, Dandadhoran Adohiwala, Dalanwala, Gujram, Ajabpur and finally its contribute the water to the suswa River which intern joins the Ganga.

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential of remote sensing techniques for assessing the relationship between land degradation and poverty in Pali development block of Rajasthan. Due to climatic conditions that prevail in this area of the country, less facilities and management practices to conserve land and its fertility becomes an important factor for intensifying poverty. The other countenance of this is that it is poverty which leads to land degradation. This paper assesses the impact of poverty and land degradation on each other. The desertification intensity and BPL density is calculated and relation is seen using Chi square test. The goodness of fit is seen up to 5 per cent level of significance for land degradation and demographic data.  The desertification in agricultural area is also considered. The total degradation in the block calculated is 8.39 per cent. It is found that village with highest BPL density has more degradation intensity particularly in agricultural area, proving the agricultural based economy of the dry lands in Rajasthan. An example study is also done at village level.  Using cadastral map and satellite image classification, fields that require immediate attention have been identified. Demographic and degradation maps are also prepared.