eChapters

Journal ratings are instrumental in shaping the trajectory of scientific research, particularly in the field of agricultural sciences. They significantly influence the visibility, credibility, and funding of research endeavors, often acting as benchmarks for academic excellence and institutional prestige. However, the methodologies used to assign these ratings have been a subject of intense scrutiny due to their lack of transparency and inherent biases. This chapter explores the multifaceted role of journal ratings in agricultural sciences, shedding light on their impact on research priorities, academic careers, and international scientific collaborations. It also examines the limitations of current rating systems, including their excessive reliance on metrics like the impact factor and the geographical biases that disadvantage researchers from developing countries.
2.1. Importance of Journal Ratings in Agricultural Sciences
Agricultural sciences encompass a broad range of disciplines, from crop genetics and soil science to agricultural economics and rural development. The field is pivotal for addressing global challenges such as food security, climate change, and sustainable development. Journal ratings serve as a critical tool for researchers, institutions, and funding agencies to evaluate the quality and relevance of scientific contributions.
2.1.1. Enhancing Research Visibility
High-rated journals often serve as the primary platforms for disseminating groundbreaking research. Publishing in these journals ensures greater visibility among peers, policymakers, & practitioners. This visibility is crucial in agricultural sciences, where translating research findings into practice can have immediate and far-reaching impacts on food systems and livelihoods. For instance, research on drought-resistant crops published in a high-impact journal is more likely to influence agricultural policies and attract investment in technology transfer

Since the last decade discussion regarding ecology is being heard. A campaign with a great planning has launched by holding seminar conferences and meets. The ecological problem became a matter of tremendous panic and anxiety. Not only in India but also in entire world this problem is being discussed through all school, colleges and universities on international scale all over world, since it became universal issue now a days. The word ecology was not known to the people 20 years ago, never the less it became familiar even among the villages today. The people in villages are making thorough study of the subject. The experts of ecology from all over the world have been surprised to learn the exhaustive study of the same done by the Indian scholars. We have instituted a separate ministry to look after the environmental problems. The activities injurious to environment are prohibited. An act is there to restrict antienvironmental deeds what made scientists all over the world to take this matter so seriously. Does it mean that the very existence of mankind has been jeopardized by it Let us see what our ancient literature say about the ecology and pollution.

ABSTRACT

Satellite-based hyperspectral imaging became areality in November 2000 with the successful launch and operation of the Hyperion system on board the EO-1 platform. Hyperion is a push broom imager with 220 spectral bands in the 400-2500 nm wavelength range, a 30 meter pixel size and a 7.5 km swath. Prelaunch characterization of Hyperion measured low signal to noise (SNR<40:1) for the geologically significant shortwave infrared (SWIR) wavelength region (2000- 2500 nm). The impact of this low SNR on Hyperion's capacity to resolve spectral detail is studied for the Musiri and Tattayyangarpettai regions of part of Namakkal and Tiruchirapalli districts of Tamil Nadu state, India which comprises a diverse range of minerals with narrow, diagnostic absorption bands in the SWIR. Following radiative transfer correction of the Hyperion radiance at sensor data to surface radiance (apparent reflectance), diagnostic spectral signatures were clearly apparent including: green vegetation; talc; dolomite; crystalline limestone, chlorite; white mica and sericite. Though the derived surface composition maps generated from these image endmembers were noisy (both random and column), the spatially coherent and correlated well with the known geology. The interpreted and processed mineral map is given below. In addition, the Hyperion data were used to measure and map spectral shifts of <10 nm in the SWIR related to white mica chemical variations.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

Introduction

The search for order in the location and size of settlements continues. Certain geographers examined the size of distribution of settlements and described in graphical form the relationship between the number and size of settlements. Their methods were radically different in that they were not deterministic, rather than making a set of assumptions, deriving a theory and testing it against reality, they observed the size and number of settlements in various countries and noted a common characteristic, which was called the rank size rule. Having once observed this order in the real world, they then sought to explain it. A relationship which is observed on several occasions is called an empirical regularity. The rank size rule is one such empirical regularity.

The rank size rule was first observed by Auerbach in 1913 but was proposed and popularized by G.K. Zipf in his book “Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort”. Since then, many writers have attempted to explain it but the basic aim has always remained the same: to find a graphical description to the size distribution of cities which would apply to the situation prevailing in many countries.

Rank Size Rule: Theoretical Base and Concept

Rank size rule is a theory describing numerical distribution of settlement, which recognises an empirical regularity whereby the product obtained by multiplying a city’s rank by its size is equal to a constant, the population of the country’s largest city such that for a given settlement system

Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as critical tools in modern agriculture and weather intelligence. Their integration has revolutionized how we monitor, analyze, and manage not only food production but also urban development, natural resource conservation, and climate adaptation. In this chapter, we explore the fundamentals of remote sensing, the use of diverse sensing technologies (including satellite imagery, radar, LiDAR, and thermal imaging), and the incorporation of advanced data analytics and machine learning. We also examine GIS integration for spatial analysis and mapping, discuss emerging technologies like unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, and address economic, ethical, and policy considerations. Real-world case studies illustrate the practical applications of these technologies, while discussions on future directions highlight opportunities for continued innovation. Food production systems and its management today face unprecedented challenges—from climate variability and resource scarcity to urban expansion and shifting ecosystems. To address these challenges, modern strategies increasingly depend on synthesizing high-resolution environmental data with advanced spatial analysis. Remote sensing technologies provide a bird’s-eye view of vast landscapes, while GIS platforms enable efficient management and interpretation of these datasets. The integration of these technologies supports a host of applications, including real-time monitoring of weather phenomena, predictive modeling of environmental impacts, and strategic planning for sustainable development. With emerging trends such as drone-based monitoring, IoT sensor networks, and AIdriven analytics, the potential for remote sensing and GIS to transform weather intelligence and environmental management is growing exponentially. This chapter provides both the technical foundation and applied perspectives necessary to understand and leverage these powerful tools.

Governments play a pivotal role in fostering CRRD by formulating policies, mobilizing resources, and promoting sustainable practices to enhance rural resilience. Governments in CMCs are central to designing and implementing policies that integrate climate resilience into rural development. 4.1.1 Policy Frameworks for Climate Resilience National adaptation plans (NAPs) and climate- focused agricultural policies are critical tools. For instance, Bangladesh's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) prioritizes climate- resilient crops and coastal embankments to protect rural communities from salinity intrusion (MoEF, Bangladesh 2005). Similarly, India's National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture promotes climate-smart farming techniques like zero-tillage and drought-resistant seeds (MoAFW, India 2023). These policies align with CIRDAP's mission to foster sustainable rural development by addressing region-specific

The social area analysis model of urban structure incorporates all three aspects of city structure, namely concentric zones, sectors and multiple nuclei. It is a more comprehensive statement of urban forms. The model was developed by R.A. Murdie in 1969. According to this model, the physical space of streets, buildings and roads are superimposed by three dimension of social space (Fig. 8.1). The social criteria are the following:

Family Status

Family status indicators include population and age variables, house ownership and age characteristics, family size and marital status and other life cycle. These exhibit a concentric zonal or ring pattern with older, smaller renter households located near the city centre and owner occupied newer larger family households near the outer fringe.

Economic Status

Economic status tends to include measure of income, occupation and education. This portrays a distinct sectoral pattern with definite high income and low income sectors.

The possibility of the drifting of continents was first suggested by the French scholar Antonio Snider in 1858, but this was so much opposed to the scientific view then prevailing that nobody took notice of it. In 1910 F.B. Taylor of America invoked the hypothesis of horizontal displacement of continents or continental drift with a view to explaining the distribution of mountain ranges, but for various reasons the hypothesis of Taylor received scant attention. German Professor Alfred Wegener was the first to put forward this idea in the form of a theory in 1912 and published a detailed discussion of it in 1915. But an account of the First World War (1914-18) this could not attract the attention of many scientists. In 1924 an English translation of Wegener’s book was published. Since then it has attracted much attention and publicity, and a huge literature has grown around this theory.

Wegener was primarily a climatologist and the main problem he wanted to explain was the change of climates in the geological past. There are several geological evidences to show that there have been important and large scale changes in the climates of the world in the geological past. The occurrence of coal in the cool middle latitudes indicates that the climate of these regions was hot and humid in the carboniferous times and the natural vegetation was dense forest which ultimately resulted in the formation of huge coal deposits. On the other hand, in India, South Australia, Brazil or South Africa where the climate is warm today, there are evidences of cold climate and the presence of glaciers in the carboniferous period. The only conclusion that can be reached from this is that either the climatic zones have moved or if they have not, then there has been movement of the landmasses. There are several difficulties in postulating shifts in the climatic belts of the world as their geographical distribution is governed primarily by the sun. It, therefore, appears to be more probable that the landmasses have changed their position.

Isostasy is derived from the Greek word isostasios meaning ‘in equipoise’ or in a state of balance. American geologist Dutton was the first to use the term isostasy in 1889 for the state of gravitational equilibrium that exists between continents and ocean floor and the mountains, plateaus and plains on a rotating earth, in accordance with densities of their underlying rocks. Dutton was of the view that the height of these different features was related to their density. In other words, the higher features were composed of rocks of lower density and the features of lesser to height were made of rocks of higher density. For instance, the continental blocks whose average height is about 5 kms above the ocean floor are composed of lighter rocks than the latter, and to compensate for their higher height the continental blocks go deeper into the earth so that the continents and ocean basins may remain in equilibrium. The same argument applies to the mountain ranges. The excess mass of lighter materials which rises in the form of mountain chains on the earth’s surface is compensated by light materials extending as roots into the denser strata below. In other words, the upper part of the earth’s crust is built of lighter rocks which is floating on the substratum of denser rocks. The hypothesis of the sialic rocks floating over the sima of the sub-stratum had been first put forward by Sir George Airy of Britain in 1855. The use of the word floating, of course, did not imply that the sub-stratum was in a liquid condition.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

The Imperative for Regional Collaboration Climate change poses a transboundary threat that no single nation can address in isolation. In CMCs, rural populations, often dependent on agriculture and natural resources, are disproportionately vulnerable. For instance, Assam, India, faces rising temperatures and frequent floods, threatening 86% of its agriculture-dependent rural population. Similarly, Bangladesh, a climate change hotspot, grapples with salinization and cyclones that disrupt rural livelihoods. Regional collaboration offers a pathway to pool resources, share expertise, and develop scalable solutions. As the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia highlights, collaborative action enhances food and water security through shared knowledge

There is no terminal of any kind of research, rather they presence a static snap of the gamut of ecological dynamics and functions.

The following scopes for future research

• To construct modelling on resilience, beyond agriculture like livestock f ishery, forestry.

• To create new Algorithm of prediction in ecological behaviour and dynamics

• Gender and economic factors in resilience study and analysis

• Ecological resilience in different agro climatic zones covering coastal ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem red lateritic ecosystem etc

• Policy research in ensuring and intriguing ecological resilience as well as social resilience on the common platform of production behaviour

• Importance of ecological resilience in the perspective of climate change and global warming

Introduction

A thematic layer is defined as a layer with a set of logical feature data placed under single theme such as soil type, pH level, salinity, and water table. The features in these layers determine real world objects and are created using geometries such as points, lines and polygons (Tickoo 2017). Thematic layering is the spatial representation of analyzed data of elements that belong to the same type. Thematic maps are used to create these layers, which show how one or more specific data themes vary across different geographic areas.

Maps make it easier to interpret and communicate the results of any GIS analysis. R has a large number of packages for making thematic maps. Static mapping is straightforward with plot()methods provided by core spatial packages sf and raster. The use of plot() function have been discussed in the previous chapters. Another package for mapping isspwithspplot() having enough options for producing good quality thematic maps.It is also possible to create advanced maps using ggplot2. This chapter discusses, separately, preparing thematic maps from vectors and rasters with the above mentioned packages. A dedicated map-making package tmaphas been given special focus in this chapter.

3. Contemporary Crisis in Global Agriculture
Over the past century, bunch of initiatives have been taken and achieved worldwide in expediting human welfare. Societies have also changed to great extent as a result of quantum leaps in technology, rapid globalization, and innovations in agricultural production systems. Perhaps the world ‘free of fear and want’ envisioned at the foundation programme of the United Nations is still a far cry.
Similarly, much work left to be fulfilled the vision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and to make ‘a world free of hunger and malnutrition and one in which food and agriculture contribute to improving the living standards of all, especially the poorest, in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner’.
Amidst great plenty, millions of people still face pervasive poverty, inequalities, joblessness, natural resource depletion, environmental degradation, displacement, migration, disease, and deprivation. Majority of humanity’s progress has reached at a significant cost to the environment. The impacts of climate change are already being felt, and if left unabated; definitely will intensify to a considerable extent in the years coming. Besides, population dynamics will radically change demographics over the decades ahead. Growth in the world’s population is projected to be concentrated in Africa and South Asia and in the biggest cities.
Then agricultural production has to maintain pace with those of rising population for atleast a sustainable world. Although, agricultural production more than tripled between the years of 1960 and 2015, where Green Revolution owes to robust crop production and a significant increment in the use of land, water and other natural resources for agricultural purposes. This period witnessed a remarkable progress in both of industrialization and globalization of food and agriculture. At the same time changes in the length of food supply chains took place as the physical distance from farm to plate has increased dramatically; the consumption pattern of processed, packaged, and prepared foods has changed simultaneously in everywhere though the most in rural communities.

3.1 Conceptual Framework

Aconceptual framework is an analytical tool that is used to get a comprehensive understanding of the study. It embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. It is generally constructed to provide the researcher the element ofattainable and researchable problems and ideas supported by methodology, design, prospective analysis and empirical conclusion. The conceptual framework is often called as the research paradigm.

The subject matter of the present research is Resilience and productivity of agriculture in different social-ecology: the farmers’ perception, status and interpretation. It is expected that the terminologies and concepts used to frame up the topic need to undergo brief explanation for the better understanding of its meaning.

Resilience: Resilience is about anticipating, planning and reducing disaster risk to effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socio-economic assets and ecosystems. The ideas of ‘bounce back’, ‘spring forward’ and ‘build back better’ are often used in the context of resilience.

Productivity: Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio between the output volume and the volume of inputs. It measures how efficiently production inputs, are being used in an economy to produce a given level of output.

Agriculture: The word agriculture derives from the Latin ager (field) and colo (cultivate) signifying, when combined, the Latin agricultura: field or land tillage. But the word has come to subsume a very wide spectrum of activities that are integral to agriculture and have their own descriptive terms, such as cultivation, domestication, horticulture, arboriculture, and vegeculture, as well as forms of livestock management such as mixed crop-livestock farming, pastoralism, and transhumance. The Oxford English Dictionary (1971) defines agriculture as “The science and art of cultivating the soil, including the allied pursuits of gathering in the crops and rearing livestock; tillage, husbandry, farming.”

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

Temperature regulates germination, plant growth, flowering, maturity and many insect and disease processes. Thermal indices integrate temperature over time to quantify biological development more effectively than simple temperature averages. This chapter introduces growing degree days, heat units, photothermal units, heliothermal units and related measures. It explains base, optimum and maximum temperatures and connects accumulated thermal time with crop phenology. These indices help predict development stages, adjust sowing dates, estimate harvest periods, schedule farm operations and assess varietal suitability. Thermal-index analysis is particularly valuable under climate variability because it enables researchers and farmers to anticipate shifts in crop development and improve climate-responsive agricultural management.

Thermal Pollution
The term “thermal pollution” refers to the damaging rise in temperature that occurs in rivers, lakes, the ocean, and streams. The local fish and plant life may perish as a result of this temperature increase.
Definition
Thermal pollution refers to the release of warm water into rivers. (OR) Any process that modifies the temperature of water results in thermal pollution, which is the deterioration of water quality.
Causes/Sources
Electric power stations are major contributors to thermal pollution. Burning coal or natural gas produces heat in electric power plants. Because of the high temperatures, water can be turned into steam, which powers turbines and generates electricity. The plant circulates cool water near to the heated steam in order to help condense it. The 15 oC above-average temperature of this heated water is released back into the body of water. Thermal pollution can also be caused by runoff water. Concrete is heatabsorbing and can get extremely hot. The problem of water temperature rise is also a significant issue when runoff from concrete surfaces enters rivers.