eChapters

Nanotechnology has emerged as a revolutionary force in the food industry, providing innovative solutions to improve food quality, safety, and usefulness. Researchers have devised novel ways to numerous issues in food production and preservation by harnessing nanoparticles' unique traits, such as their high surface area-to-volume ratio and customizable physicochemical characteristics. Nanotechnology-enabled food additives provide a wide range of benefits, including improved texture, taste, color, and nutritional value, as well as increased shelf life and microbiological safety. Furthermore, nanoparticles are effective transporters for bioactive chemicals, allowing for targeted and regulated release within the food matrix.

8.1 Introduction
The increasing rate of waste generation due to consumption patterns has emerged as a significant environmental management challenge. The valorization of this waste hold great potential in production of bio-based products, provided they meet the multi-criteria of environmental sustainability and economic viability (Dragone et al., 2020). Within this framework, the advancement of biorefineries is considered to be a valuable strategy. These transform lignocellulosic biomass to valuable bio-based products including biofuels and biobased chemicals which promote circular economy (Mariana et al., 2021). The incorporation of biorefineries into the market value chain necessitates the establishment of production framework which aims high recovery and generation of value-added products from biomass (Meramo- Hurtado and González-Delgado, 2019). However, the upscaling of these biorefineries faces various challenges such as process efficiency and technological advancement. Additionally, the largescale operation of biorefineries requires consistent and stable biomass supply. Addressing these challenges require technological advancements and policy framework (Makepa and Chihobo, 2024). These could ensure the economic viability and profitability of biorefineries which is essential for their successful implementation in long-term sustainability goals (Arias et al., 2023). In this context, the early-stage evaluation comprises production capacity, market demand, technological limitations and environmental impact.
8.2 Challenges in Upscaling of Biorefineries
For fulfillment of the global demand for bio-based products it is important to upscale biorefineries from laboratory to industrial scale. Biorefineries are closely aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as several SDGs emphasize the efficient and circular utilization of resources to promote sustainability. Additionally, SDSs promotes adoption of practices which encourage climate change mitigation, economic growth, societal well-being and advancements in research and innovations (Lange et al., 2021). However, the establishment of biorefineries faces various technical challenges similar to those encountered in conventional refinery plants. These challenges arise primarily due to the large volume of biomass required for processing to achieve industrial scale production of bioproducts (Ahmed et al., 2023).

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture is vital in today’s world as it offers the potential to meet our agricultural needs, something that conventional agriculture fails to do. Current soil management strategies are mainly dependent on inorganic chemical fertilizers, which caused a serious threat to human health and environment. To overcome the ecological problems resulting from the loss of plant nutrients and to increase crop yields in the absence of resources for obtaining costly fertilizers, microscopic organisms that allow more efficient nutrient use or increase nutrient availability can provide sustainable solutions for the present and future agricultural practices. Microbial populations are instrumental to fundamental processes that drive stability and productivity of agro-ecosystems. Several investigations addressed at improving understanding of the diversity, dynamics and importance of soil microbial communities and their beneficial and cooperative roles in agricultural productivity. Thus the technique, which uses microscopic organism as biofertilizer, is environment friendly and ensures safe and healthy agricultural products. In this chapter we aim to provide a brief overview of potential use of biofertilizer for attaining sustainability of agro-ecosystem.

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal symbionts are important natural resources to revive degraded and deforested areas. Artificial inoculum of these mycobionts improves the growth of tree seedlings in nutrient poor soils due to the formation of extensive network of fungal mycelium responsible for the transfer of water and nutrients to the plants. Seedlings of tree species like, Pinus insularis, Quercus griffithii and Schima wallichii with ectomycorrhizae formed by Suillus bovinus, Boletus edulis and Scleroderma citrinum were studied in field condition. The study was conducted at two different stages of degraded sites. Results of the study indicated that seedlings with ectomycorrhizae were able to generate numerous lateral roots of greater length and thereby utilize water and nutrients more effectively than non- mycorrhizal ones The degree of mycorrhizal development varied in different host species with different fungal species. There was a strong relation between the colonization by mycorrhiza and the survival of seedlings. The study has suggested that mycorrhiza has a potential in reclamation of soil and reforestation of degraded land. S. bovinus., B. edulis and S. citrinum successfully colonized and promoted the growth of P. insulates Q. griffithii and S. wallichii respectively in reforestation programmes of degraded lands of Nagaland.

The utilization of biomass presents a promising avenue for addressing the challenges of resource scarcity, waste management, and environmental sustainability. This book chapter delves into the multifaceted applications of biomass, with a particular focus on the processing of straw, a versatile agricultural residue. From providing essential bedding material for animals and enhancing agricultural practices to playing a pivotal role in horticulture, cushioning, mulching, and composting, this chapter examines the diverse roles that processed straw assumes. Furthermore, it explores its significance in paper and cardboard manufacturing and its emergence as a renewable fuel source, underscoring how thoughtful biomass utilization paves the way toward a more environmentally conscious and resilient future.

VAM fungi are of worldwide distribution. They are present in the soil in form of chlamydospores, zygospores and azygospores and have been recovered from the soils of a variety of habitats e.g. agricultural fields, nutrient deficient soils, sand dunes and deserts, industrial wastes, sodic soils, polluted sites, sewage, eroded sites and others like forests, open woodlands, scrub, savana, heaths, grasslands, anthracite and bituminous coal wastes. There are several reports of VAM fungi from diverse habitats from India.

VA-mycorrhizal associations occur widely throughout the plant kingdom. They have  been reported to be present in Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in nearly all the geographical regions of the world. Most of the agricultural and horticultural crops belonging to diverse families have been shown to form VA-mycorrhizae. Many species of plants of economically important families have been reported to be mycorrhizal. Likewise, many of the plantation crops like coffee, tea, citrus, timber trees, many of the fruit trees and medicinal plants have been shown to form VA-mycorrhiza.

Favourable effect of VAM association in plants has been attributed to an increased nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal roots. The transfer of ion from the soil to the roots by mass flow or by diffusion depends on the mobility of that particular ion in the soil. Ions such as NO₃^- ,SO ₄^— and Ca⁺⁺ may move rapidly through the soil to the roots by mass flow, and uptake would be limited by the absorbing capacity of the roots. On the other hand, ions such as H₂PO₄^-, NH₄⁺, Zn⁺⁺ and Cu⁺⁺ are poorly mobile and move to the roots by diffusion, the rate limiting steps is likely to be the movement to the root surface. Under such conditions, it is expected that uptake would be increased if ions could be moved rapidly through extramatrical hyphae of the VAM fungi rather than diffusing slowly through the soil. It is now well established that VA mycorrhizae enhance the uptake of phosphate by the roots but it is likely that they can also assist in the uptake of other ions. The following account provides an information on the findings of Indian mycorrhizasts on the effects of VA mycorrhizal association on nutrient uptake in the plants and its physiological implications.

Mycorrhiza research is relatively recent. Although, it was in 1885 that A.B. Frank made reference for the first time to the term “Mycorrhiza”, it took him nine more years to establish the symbiotic relationship between the fungus and its host plant. It took a much longer time to convince the rest of the scientific community of the validity of Frank’s theory. Researches carried out between 1917 to 1950 confirmed that “Mycorrhizal colonization is a beneficial symbiosis between tree and fungus”. It is an unique partnership in nature, where the higher plants share their photosynthates with their fungal partners and provide them shelter, the fungal partners in return provide protection to the root system and assist it in performing its functions especially anchorage and absorption of nutrients / water from soil more efficiently.

The ectomycorrhizal fungi have been in use as a biological tool in improving the performance of forest trees since long. Better performance of forest trees is ensured by making them mycorrhizal, employing efficient strains of ectomycorrhizal fungi.

Extensive studies have been carried out to explore the possibility of using mycorrhizal model system in inducing suppressions of potential soil-borne pathogens. Its relevance becomes all the more important since most of the soil-borne diseases, by and large, are not easily controlled by conventional methods.

Diseases due to Fungal Pathogens

Most of the studies conducted on the interaction of VAM fungi and fungal pathogens suggest that mycorrhizae decrease the severity of disease, while a few studies suggest that there is either no effect or there is an increase in the severity of disease. It has been pointed out that in view of the fact that VAM fungi deter the severity of disease they may be used as biocontrol agents. Various mechanisms by which VAM could suppress the fungal pathogens have been suggested on the basis of experimental evidences.

During the last thirty years, there has been a growing appreciation of the impor tance of VAM fungi in improving the plant growth and yield. They have been extensively studied also in India. Considering the potential importance of these organisms in the recovery of disturbed sites and their possible use in land reclamation, researches regarding their relationship to ecosystem recovery have now been initiated also in India.

Large areas of land in the country called wastelands are degraded and lying unutilized due to various constraints. Part of it called culturable, has the potential for the development of vegetation cover. On the other hand, part of it called unculturable, has no potential for the development of vegetation cover. In addition to these natural wastelands, there are large tracts of wastelands created due to human activities such as mining, deforestation etc. Such wastelands are also culturable and a vegetation cover can be developed on them after removing the constraints with some efforts.

Since a method to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture is not available as yet, clean and high quality VAM inoculum production is not possible. However, VAM technology is gradually getting a place in agriculture as well as reclamation and afforestation programmes. The inoculum currently being used includes infested fields soils, sievings from such soils, soil and roots of greenhouse plants, or pot culture inoculum derived from surface disinfected spores of a single VAM fungus on a host plant grown in a sterilized growth medium. Attempts are being made to manipulate VAM fungi, rooting media, hosts and fertilizers in order to secure superior quality of inoculum by these methods on a large scale. In addition, other techniques like tissue culture, hydroponic system etc. are also being attempted to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture. The Indian mycorrhizasts have also attempted to devise and develop improved methods for production and storage of commercial VAM inoculum. The following description gives an account of Indian work related to production and storage of consistently high quality disease free VAM inoculum.

Of the various microorganisms present in and around roots, VAM fungi occupy unique ecological position as they are partly inside and partly outside the host. Their internal phase encounters competition and antagonism from other beneficial symbiotic microbes while their external phase faces competition and antagonism from beneficial non-symbiotic microbes present around the roots. Since they have an ensured source of nutrients from the host, they have comparatively better conditions for their growth and may exert greater effect on plants with other symbiotic and non-symbiotic microbes in and around their roots. It has been pointed out that investigations are needed on the interactions between VAM fungi and these beneficial microbes, and their effect on growth and productivity in plants. A bulk of information has been collected related to this aspect; however, authentic generalization has not been possible as yet. Following description gives an account of the work done by Indian mycorrhizasts on the interactions between VAM fungi and other beneficial symbiotic/non-symbiotic microbes in and around the roots.

Introduction
Glycerol, a colourless and odourless sweet viscous liquid, is a prominent member of the polyol family—compounds distinguished by their multiple alcohol groups. Chemically known as 1, 3-propanetriol and commonly referred to as glycerine, it contains three hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which contribute to its hygroscopic nature and chemical versatility. As an essential component of lipids, glycerol forms the structural backbone of fats and oils, underscoring its biological and chemical significance. Over the years, glycerol has transitioned from being a laboratory curiosity to becoming a cornerstone of modern industrial processes, thanks to its versatility and renewable sourcing (Zhu et al., 2024).
Modern Applications and Industrial Importance of Glycerol
1. Chemical Industry: As a versatile platform chemical glycerol supports the creation of acrolein, propylene glycol and polyhydroxyalkanoates derivatives. Catalytic transformations allow glycerol to produce glycerol carbonate which finds application in lubricants, solvents and polymer synthesis research (Aranda et al., 2009). Glycerol demonstrates essential functionality in the creation of hydrogen and syngas which results in more eco-friendly manufacturing methods.
2. Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics: The humectant and lubricant properties of glycerol make it essential for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics where it maintains moisture in cough syrups, lozenges, and skin creams while improving texture. The medical derivative glycerol trinitrate provides essential treatment for angina pectoris which results in substantial therapeutic advantages (Binod et al., 2011).
3. Food Industry: Glycerol functions as a humectant and preservative, maintaining moisture in products like dried fruits, confectioneries, and beverages. In formulations free of sugar, it also serves as a sweetener (Awogbemi and Von Kallon, 2022).
4. Animal Feed: A economical energy source for cattle, crude glycerol, a biodiesel byproduct, helps sustainable agricultural methods (Mekunye and Makinde, 2024).
5. Energy and Environmental Sustainability: Glycerol is used in biogas development to improve methane yields and helps the development of bio refineries for converting waste glycerol into biofuels, lipids, and other sustainable chemicals (Peng et al., 2023).
6. Other Applications: Glycerol finds usage as a concrete addition for enhanced durability and in antifreeze compositions in the building and automobile industries. In printing, paper manufacture, and microbial fermentation techniques, it also finds roles as a plasticiser, lubricant, and carbon source (Solowski et al., 2020).

7.1 Introduction
Valorization in simple terms means to increase the value of a product, in economics it is usually through government and administrative actions. In the concept of waste management, it is defined as the process of reutilizing or making a new product of value from waste sources. Several kinds of wastes can be transformed into materials and energy of value, one such example is agricultural wastes. These agricultural wastes are eligible to be a base for manufacturing refined commodity (Capanoglu, Nemli and Tomas-Barberan, 2022) such as chemicals, adsorbents, pharmaceutical products, acids, chitosan, certain type of wax esters, pigments etc. or can be used in several industrial or domestic processes as an energy source, most commonly the production of bioethanol. Valorization greatly contributes to circular economy as materials are continuously renewed and reused, minimizing the need for virgin resources. By transforming agricultural wastes into value – added products, valorization helps to close the loop, ensuring that each by – product is put to use in an efficient, affordable and green way, thereby reducing the dependance on conventional waste management techniques such as landfills and incineration. Moreover, valorization has other benefits, including improved public health, development of newer industries in the material recovery and processing and waste management sector. It can also bring about social awareness about sustainable practices, fostering responsible consumption and waste disposal behaviors.
7.2 Types of Agricultural Wastes
Generally, agricultural wastes are organic. The most common types of agricultural wastes are biomass from rotten produce, crops, livestock carcasses, dead leaves, droppings from livestock and straws. These organic wastes have vast potential in being converted to value – added products through various methods without much additional treatment. Inorganic wastes such as heavy metals like Pb, Cu, Hg and Ba are also found in agricultural runoff containing pesticides, paints etc. Figure 7.1 (Omojola Awogbemi et al. 2022) provides various examples of agricultural wastes that are commonly used in the production of materials and energy.

5.1 Introduction
One of the main methods for cost avoidance and prevention is value engineering/ value analysis. “Society of American Value Engineers (SAVE)” states that value Analysis is the systematic use of known procedures which determine the function of a product or service, define a monetary value for the function, and provide the essential function reliably at the lowest overall cost. If these are applied to a new product, it is called value engineering. By analysing the function of any product, material part, component, system, or service, it is possible to find extraneous expenditures connected with them and effectively remove them without compromising the product’s quality, functional dependability, or ability to provide services. The principles and steps of value analysis/ value engineering will supplement the effort of design thinking.
5.2 Symptoms for Introducing Value Analysis (VA)
If one or more of the following symptoms exist, starting a VA programme is expected to yield very positive effects.
i. Sales of the company’s products are declining.
ii. The prices of the products of the company are greater than those of the products of its rivals.

Minisatellite is a section of DNA that consists of a short series of bases 10– 60bp. These occur at more than 1000 locations in the human genome. Some minisatellites contain a central (or “core”) sequence of letters “GGGCAGGANG” (where N can be any base) or more generally a strand bias with purines (Adenosine (A) and Guanine (G)) on one strand and pyrimidines (Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)) on the other. It has been proposed that this sequence per se encourages chromosomes to swap DNA. In alternative models, it is the presence of a neighbouring cis-acting meiotic double-strand break hotspot which is the primary cause of minisatellite repeat copy number variations. Somatic changes are suggested to result from replication difficulties (which might include replication slippage, among other phenomena). When such events occur, mistakes are made, this causes minisatellites at over 1000 locations in a persons genome to have slightly different numbers of repeats, thereby making them unique. The most highly mutable minisatellite locus described so far is CEB1 (D2S90) described by Vergnaud.

Introduction

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae are fungi that exhibit symbiosis with roots of higher plants. The term vesicular arbuscular is derived from characteristic structure i.e. ‘branched hyphae or arbuscles’ that are formed with in the root cortical cells and vesicles or ‘swollen lipid storing organs’ that occur with in or between them.

Virus can be defined as a genetic element containing either DNA or RNA that replicates in host cells as intracellular parasites but is characterized by having an extracellular state.

Virus can use the metabolic machinery of the host cell and can modify the genetics of the host cell. Virus has both extracellular and intracellular state.

Extracellular State

Outside the host cell, the virus is a minute particle containing nucleic acid surrounded by protein, which is referred as virions or virus particles. Virions are inert and have no biosynthetic and metabolic functions. Extracellular state or virus particle is the perfect stage of virus to study the morphology and chemistry.

Intracellular State

The active state in which the virus replicate in the host cell. When the virus nucleic acid is introduced to host cell and replication starts, the process is referred as infection. The cell in which infection of virus and replication takes place is referred as host cell.

Introduction

The microbial cells of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoa are visible by light microscopy. Beyond the resolution of light microscope are the unique organisms that are sub microscopic and intracellular parasites known as viruses. The term virus is a Latin word means poisonous substance. The viruses are functionally and metabolically different from the cellular organisms as (i) they are infectious agents and contain only one type of nucleic acid encapsulated in a protein coat. Some may possess membranes but do not have any cytoplasm or metabolism of their own. (ii) They are much smaller in size than the smallest bacteria and can pass through bacteriological filters.