eChapters

Abstract

Since the first oil well drilled successfully in 1859, crude oil has been a serious problem around world, including Indonesia. As a source of all petroleum products, crude oil is very complex component and divided into aliphatic, aromatic, resin and asphaltene. Petroleum products have been used for daily life and created large amounts of pollutants in environment and ecosystems around the globe. The pollutants should be treated by certain method; among them, bioremediation has several advantages to resolve the problem. In 2003, Ministry of Environmental (MoE) – Republic Indonesia was endorsed with a new regulation about biological treatment or bioremediation for crude oil contaminated soil (MoE regulation No. 128/2003). The most important to be noted in bioremediation process is the presence of microbes with certain metabolite capabilities. The degradation rate also can be improved and sustained by ensuring the adequate required factors. This article describes the removal of crude oil by utilization of microbial potentials, factors affecting biodegradation, and how they are applied in Indonesia.

COMMON FEATURES OF BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES

Membranes are sheetlike, just a few molecules thick and form closed boundaries between cell compartments.

Membranes contain lipids and proteins, with small amounts of carbohydrayes linked to the lipids and proteins.

Lipids in membranes are small with hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions. Lipid bilayers provide a barrier to the diffusion of polar molecules.

Characteristic functions of membranes are mediated by specific proteins, serving as pumps, channels, receptors, energy transducers and enzymes.

Membrane components associate through noncovalent interactions.

Membranes are asymmetrical, with two sides of the membrane differing from each other.

Lipid and protein molecules often diffuse rapidly in the plane of the membrane.

Central transport of ions and molecules into and out of the cell.

Generate proton gradients for ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation.

Receptors bind extracellular signals and transduce the signal to cell interior.

Abstract

Nitrogen (N₂) is an essential nutrient for every organisms. It is the building block of many biological molecules. Atmosphere contains 79% of N₂ gas which cannot be used by plants directly as it is chemically inert. Many diazotrophs like bacteria and cyanobacteria have the capability to convert atmospheric dinitrogen into a usable form by means of Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). N₂ fixation is generally three types i.e. Asymbiotic, Associative and Symbiotic. Asymbiotic N₂-fixation also known as free living N₂-fixation is under taken by some bacteria and cyanobacteria. In associative N₂-fixation, some bacteria fix nitrogen in association with root of some grasses and cereal plants. In symbiotic nitrogen fixation, Rhizobium form root nodule in legumes and fix atmospheric N₂ and convert it into the ammonia (NH₃) by the help of Nitrogenase enzyme. This oxygen sensitive enzyme consist of two components i.e. di-nitrogenase (MoFe protein) and di-nitrogenase reductase (Fe protein) which are highly conserve in sequence and structure. The N₂ fixing genes e.g. nod gene (nodulation gene) and the nif gene (nitrogen-fixing gene) are located in the plasmid which is also called mega plasmid. Symbiotic association between legume and rhizobium have agronomic importantance and reduce the use of N-fertilizers or even avoided. The long term use of the nitrogenous biofertilizer in the agricultural field is a promising approach to develop and fulfil N₂ demand of the growing crop without causing any environmental hazard.

Fixation of elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere by the microorganisms through a reductive process into ammonia is called biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Molecular nitrogen (N₂) is the major component (approximately 80%) of the earth’s atmosphere. The element nitrogen is an essential part of many of the chemical compounds, such as proteins and nucleic acids, which are the basis of all life forms. However, N₂ cannot be used directly by biological systems to build the chemicals required for growth and reproduction. Before its incorporation into a living system, N₂ must first be combined with the element hydrogen. This process of reduction of N₂ commonly referred to as nitrogen fixation (N-fixation).

N₂is transformed into reactive N via lightning discharge (5 teragrams (Tg) N / year; 1 Tg equals 1012 g) and by biological N fixation (100 -140 Tg N /year ). Conversion of dinitrogen to ammonia in the industrial process requires temperatures of 400 - 500^o C and high pressures (Haber-Bosch process). Biological nitrogen fixation is much more important as it contributes to more than 70 % of the input in to the world’s soil and water nitrogen. It has been estimated that 100 to 175 million tones of nitrogen are fixed annually by the process of biological nitrogen fixation.

The process of N₂ fixation is mediated by the enzyme, called nitrogenase (which reduces N₂ to ammonia). The overall reaction is as follows.

Abstract

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the emerging problems in developed and developing countries worldwide. The constantly changing today’s world of technology has led to the serious problem of e-waste. The previous studies show that India has generated 0.6 million tons of e-waste in 2014 which may increase to 0.7 to 0.9 million tons by 2015–2016. E-waste constitutes multiple components some of which are toxic that can cause serious health and environmental issues if not handled properly. The challenge is to develop innovative and cost-effective solutions to decontaminate polluted environments, to make them safe for human habitation and consumption, and to protect the functioning of the ecosystems which support life. Biological approach is currently applied to recovery of metals from contaminated soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments including air.

Abstract

Mine spoils pose adverse conditions for soil microbes and plant growth, due to its low organic content and other essential nutrients, unfavourable soil chemistry and poor soil texture. Poor microbial population inhibits nutrient transformation, consequently the establishment of the plants and ultimately affects the process of ecological succession. A synergy among different groups of beneficial microbes accompanied by plantation of suitable tree species on mined over area has proved to be effective for speedy and efficient revitalization of the mined affected lands. Inoculation of plantation with efficient strains of native microbes accelerates the soil redevelopment and helps to establish nutrients cycle readily which attracts native flora thereby the pace of natural regeneration is increased. It is therefore imperative to consider the application of effective microflora in restoration of mined lands along with the plantation.

5.1 Introduction

The densification of biomass involves transforming loose and low-density organic materials, such as wood residues, agricultural waste, and plant-based materials, into compact and energy-dense forms. This process is necessary because natural biomass can be challenging to handle, transport, and store. Densification uses mechanical, thermal, or chemical processes to increase the material’s density and energy characteristics. The resulting products, such as pellets, briquettes, or cubes, offer several advantages, including higher energy content per unit volume, efficient storage and transportation, reduced moisture content, and improved combustion efficiency. These products are utilized in various industries, including energy production, residential heating, waste management, and industrial applications. Biomass densification promotes sustainable practices by effectively utilizing biomass resources, reducing waste, and promoting the use of renewable energy sources while mitigating environmental impacts.

2.1 Introduction

Biomass store solar energy in the chemical form and it is most precious and versatile resources on earth. Biomass, unlike fossil fuels, is a renewable energy resource that is available where the climatic conditions are favorable for plant growth and production¹. The term biomass is used for all organic materials which are combustible in nature, mainly plant and animal origin present in land and aquatic environments. Biomass is considered carbon neutral, because the amount of carbon it can release is equivalent to the amount it absorbed during its life time. There is no net increase of carbon to the environment in the long term when combusting the lignocellulosic materials. Therefore, we can say that biomass is a renewable source of energy and can play vital role in responding to concerns over the protection of the environment and the security of energy supply^2,3.

Biomass energy accounts for about 15% of the world’s primary energy consumption and about 38% of the primary energy consumption in developing countries⁴. Furthermore, biomass often accounts for more than 90% of the total rural energy supplies in developing countries⁵. It is the main source to meet out domestic energy in developing countries⁶. The efficient use of fuel wood is much more eco-friendly than the use of efficient and conventional fuels like kerosene and liquefy petroleum gas (LPG). LPG emits 15 times more CO₂ per kg than wood, and kerosene emits nearly 10 times as much. CO₂ is the prominent candidate for global. It is commonly assumed that biomass fuel cycles based on renewable in nature and greenhouse-gas (GHG) neutral because the combusted carbon in the form of CO₂ is soon taken up by re-growing vegetation⁷.

7.1 Introduction

Biomass gasification is age old technology originated in 1800 century for lighting and cooking purposes (Sansaniwal et al., 2017). Biomass typically contents biopolymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in addition to the presence of average composition of C₆H₁₀O₅ which depends upon physical characteristics of biomass¹. Oxygen is required for combustion of every fuel. For complete combustion of biomass stoichiometric air to fuel ratio required varies from 6:1 to 6.5:1 with CO₂ and H₂O as end product.

Biomass gasification is an efficient and environmentally friendly way to produce energy². Gasification process is nothing but it is a conversion of solid fuel into gaseous fuel for wide applications. This whole process completed at elevated temperature range of 800-1300 ^oC with series of chemical reaction that is why it come under thermo chemical conversion³. Thermo chemical processes are most commonly employed for converting biomass into higher heating value fuels⁴. Major thermal conversion route is include direct combustion to provide heat, liquid fuel and other elements to generate process heat for thermal and electricity generation is summaries in Fig. 7.1.

Biomass, a diverse and renewable resource, holds immense potential as a source of energy, feedstock, and environmental solutions. However, effectively harnessing its benefits necessitates a systematic approach. This chapter introduces the concept of Biomass Management Techniques as a pivotal framework for optimizing the utilization of biomass resources. With a focus on sustainable practices, this chapter delves into various techniques to handle, process, and utilize biomass efficiently. From collection and transportation to storage, conversion, and beyond, Biomass Management Techniques encompass a wide array of methods that ensure the seamless integration of biomass into energy generation, industrial processes, and environmental conservation.

1.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 636kcal

It indicates that the storage of 636 kcal is associated with the transfer of 72 gm carbon into organic matter. Biomass can be directly utilized as fuel or can be converted through different routes into useful forms of fuel. In fact, biomass is a source of five useful agents, which start with ‘F’ like food, fodder, fuel, fiber and fertilizer. Further, biomass has many advantages like.

(1) It is widely available

(2) Its technology for production and conversion is well understood.

(3) It is suitable for small or large applications

(4) Its production and utilisation requires only low light intensity and low temperature (5 to 35°C)

(5) It incorporates advantage of storage and transportation

(6) Comparatively, it is associated with low or negligible pollution.

1.    Introduction    232
2.    Photosynthesis and Biomass Yields    232
3.    Biomass Properties    233
    3.1.     Polymeric and chemical composition, 233
    3.2.     Fuels analysis, 235
    3.3.     Physical properties, 236

The single piece of legislation under the Indian Government that regulates the import, manufacturing, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of all varieties of insecticides, including biopesticides, is the Insecticide Act (1968). Various parameters like shelf life, cross-contamination, moisture content, and packaging are significant factors that must be addressed before a biopesticide is registered. According to Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) recommendations, CIB simplified the protocols and listed the infrastructure needs for manufacturing of biopesticides. Information required to generate toxicity calls a strenuous effort.

Three kinds of biocontrol products are being used in India which include 1) Microbial biopesticides, 2) Plant-derived botanical pesticides, and 3) Pheromones or other natural insect growth regulators. Microbial biopesticides consist majorly of fungi, bacteria, viruses or entomopathogenic nematodes as bioactive principles.

Worldwide, various biopesticides have been created and are in use, including viruses, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.), microorganism derived products, animal derived goods (pheromones, hormones, insect-specific toxins, etc.), plant derived products, and genetically modified organisms (Nicholson 2007; Erlandson 2008; Mazhabi et al. 2011; Islam and Omar 2012).

Chemical pesticides though extremely effective in controlling pest population suffer from disadvantages. They have a broad toxic range and potentially toxic to non target organisms. Other constraints that have emerged with the use of chemical pesticides such as development of resistance and resurgence in insects, residual toxicity, secondary outbreak of minor insect pests, etc., In this juncture, the biopesticides have proven to be effective tool in managing the devastating insect pests of various crops.

The biopesticides are types of pesticides derived from natural materials such as microorganisms, plants, animals and certain minerals. They are living organisms or their products or byproducts, which can be used for the management of pests that are injurious to crop plants. Biopesticides have a vital role in crop protection, although most commonly in combination with other tools including chemical pesticides as part of integrated pest management (IPM). Microorganisms help to regulate the abundance of many pests or potential pests without any cost to society. Microbes can be increased artificially and thereby achieve faster, higher and more consistent control of the target pests that will occur naturally. Insect pathogens that are transmissible in nature from one host to another offer an important bonus effect that chemical insecticides do not have. A pathogen will kill pests exposed and many continue killing them by natural transmission from one individual host to another through subsequent host generation.

Biopesticides generally have several advantages compared to conventional pesticides. While chemical pesticides are responsible for extensive pollution of the environment, a serious health hazard due to the presence of their residues in food and development of resistance in targeted insect pest populations, biopesticides, in contrast, are inherently less toxic to humans and the environment, do not leave harmful residues, and are usually more specific to target pests. The agents employed as biopesticides, include parasites, predetors and disease causing fungi, bacteria and viruses, which are the natural enemies of pests. Utilization of naturally occurring parasites, predators and pathogens for pest control is a classical biological control. These bio agents can be conserved, preserved and multiplied under laboratory condition for field release. Once these bio-agents are introduced in the field to build their population considerably, they are capable of bringing down the targeted pest population below economic threshold level (ETL).

Introduction

Introduction of improved high yielding varieties of crop plants, use of modern agricultural practices coupled with essential control of pests of food and fiber crops have significantly contributed towards increasing the food production in green revolution era in India. Pesticide application forms the foremost limb in hiked agricultural food production and management practices. The production and post production management of crop yield requires increased use of pesticides.

Biopesticides presents biologically derived pest-management products as alternatives or complements to synthetic pesticides. The chapter explains their advantages, including biodegradability, target specificity, compatibility with Integrated Pest Management, reduced resistance risk, and comparatively favorable environmental characteristics. It classifies biopesticides into biochemical and microbial groups and describes mechanisms such as hyperparasitism, competition, antibiosis, parasitism, and volatile-compound production. Particular attention is given to neem and other botanical sources, including chinaberry, tobacco, pyrethrum, rotenone, and Melia toosendan. Their pest-control uses and preparation approaches demonstrate how botanical and microbial resources can contribute to sustainable crop protection and natural farming systems. for integrated crop protection effectively.

15.1 Biopiracy – Definition, Examples, and Impacts
Introduction
Biopiracy represents a grave ethical and legal concern in the field of biotechnology and intellectual property rights. It refers to the unauthorized and uncompensated exploitation of biological resources and traditional knowledge—primarily from developing countries—by corporations, research institutions, or individuals, often for commercial gains. Biopiracy is inherently unjust as it involves the misappropriation of community knowledge, undermining the rights of indigenous peoples, and violating the principles of equity, fairness, and sovereignty over natural resources.
As globalization intensifies biotechnological exploration, biopiracy challenges ethical norms and highlights the need for strong legal, institutional, and ethical safeguards.
Definition of Biopiracy
Biopiracy can be defined as:
“The unauthorized extraction, use, and commercialization of genetic resources or associated traditional knowledge from indigenous communities or biodiversity-rich regions without prior informed consent or fair and equitable benefit sharing.”
Biopiracy often involves patenting biological materials or indigenous medicinal knowledge without recognizing the origin communities as rightful holders of such knowledge or genetic wealth. It is closely linked to ethical misappropriation, exploitation, and violations of bioethical norms and international agreements.