eChapters

Abstract

Gender Budgeting was first introduced in 1985 and is being implemented globally by more than 50 countries to ensure gender equality goals. India took initial steps towards analysing the gender gap through “Towards Equality” a Report of the Committee on the Status of Women by the Government of India in 1974. Gender based resource allocation in the country was seen from 1990s onwards in the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) when for the first time gender perspective and the need to ensure definite flow of funds from general developmental sectors to women was emphasised upon. Women constitute 49% of human population in India so it is extremely important that the untapped gender potential is recognized, reorganised and utilized efficiently & effectively to attain a leading position in S&T sector. India has expanded her R&D base immensely since the turn of the 21^st century. Consequently there has been 10 times enhancement in enrolment of women in S&T disciplines in institutions of higher education since 1989-90. Department of Science and Technology has taken many steps in recent past to strengthen the ecosystem to empower women in S&T domain, particularly by enabling over 4000 of them who had a break in career, primarily due to familial responsibilities, to make a dignified comeback. Several Role Models, who have shown their mettle and made a mark in the chosen field, are emerging and engaging & encouraging the young, Gen Next girls.

A case study was made in Geemarahalli village, Nanjangud taluk of Mysore district during 2009-10 to know the performance of women SHG involved in cultivation of tuberose.  JSS Krishi Vigyan Kendra which was started during 1994 analyzed the problems of farmwomen that they were unorganized in doing the field operations and were almost isolated in nature.  KVK initiated in formation of women SHGs in many villages and one of such village is Geemarahalli.  Ms. Rajamma was selected as group leader of the group and her contact with KVK was started since 1996 and still continued.  She is an innovative woman despite being illiterate.  Earlier she was doing tailoring and wire bag making. Later, she developed an interest to take up farming. She formed a Self Help Group called Triveni in her village which consists of 15 farmwomen.  In the beginning, they were involved in farm operations as contract workers.  During 2007-08, this group had come in contact with KVK and were imparted the training programmes on vermicompost production, horticulture nursery management, production of biological agents etc.  Later, the group came forward to learn the cultivation aspects of tuberose which has got good market at Mysore city.  To start this venture, the possession of land was the constraint for them and they overcome it by taking a 10 gunta land on lease basis. They were imparted series of trainings on tuberose cultivation at KVK. 

Abstract

Beekeeping or modern apiculture is the art and science of rearing, breeding and managing honey bee colonies in artificial hives for economic benefits. Beekeeping has evolved into a farming enterprise that involves the use of sophisticated and artificial techniques to keep honey bees for bee products. It is estimated that beekeeping is practiced in about four lakh villages and provide employment to over 3.50 lakh persons. The existing vegetation wealth of India can sustain six million bee colonies which would produce six lakh metric tonnes of honey besides generating part time employment to more than 15 million rural and tribal households. Rural women have long working hours, spent on food production and processing and/or waged labour, in addition to family care and domestic duties. However, beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. Population, female (% of total) in India was reported at 48.18 % in 2017, according to the World Bank collection of development indicators. Rural population (% of total population) was reported at 66.46 % (83.3 crore) in 2017 as compared to urban population (37.7 crore). There are fewer women than men beekeepers, but women beekeepers are found throughout the developing countries of every continent. Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and hence poverty reduction. Beekeeping as an agro-industry presents tremendous potential and requires attention on part of planners, policy makers, development agencies and researchers on the one hand and wider publicity about the commercial and scientific uses of beekeeping products on the other. In order to increase income accrued from beekeeping activities, promoting and support of training on processing of secondary bee products to women and youth beekeepers are important. Stakeholder’s involvement in promoting and support beekeeping awareness campaigns is crucial to enhance the contribution of the sector for livelihood improvement and environmental conservation.

Abstract

Women in India constitute a larger proportion of total unemployed population and hence it is imperative to find out the entrepreneurial problems faced by them. A study was conducted with the objectives to ascertain the financial, marketing and production problems faced by women in their enterprises and assessment of their health status and work place facilities. Boutiques, beauty parlors, embroidery units, fruit and vegetable preservation units and artificial jewelry making were the enterprises selected for study. The results of the study revealed that women faced problems in areas like finance, marketing, health, work place and production. Some recommendations of the study are a) Women entrepreneurs should keep abreast of knowledge about new techniques, financial institutions, training institutions and marketing linkages. b) Information about site or location, physical facilities, transportation etc. must be collected prior to selection of area for development of an enterprise. c) Self help mutually aided groups must be formulated for overcoming common entrepreneurial problems. d) Women should shift to the non-traditional sectors of entrepreneurship in order to earn more.

Youth in India had been at the forefront of the nation’s struggle for freedom and development. There are over one billion youth in the world today. Eighty five per cent of these youth live in the developing world and around 50 per cent of the population with in developing countries live in rural areas. According to 2001 census, more than 40 per cent of the total population is between the age group of 15 to 35 which is considered as “youth” by the Government of India. Out of which, 73 per cent resides in the rural areas (Anonymous 2001). Unfortunately rural youth of today are counted among the most disadvantaged groups of society. Because of rapid population growth, widespread unemployment inadequate health, poor education, migration, lower family income and lacking adequate opportunity at farm level had led the rural youth in continued stress of self esteem and self confidence. Youth empowerment is an attitudinal, structural and cultural process whereby young people gain the ability, authority and agency to make decisions and implement change in their own lives and the lives of other people. Youth are the present and the future of humanity.

Abstract

Women play a pivotal role in agriculture, in addition to the traditional role of nourishing progeny as mother and attending to the day to day needs of the home as housewife. Women also add to the family income as wage earners. While comprising half of humanity, contributing to two thirds of the world’s work hours, a woman earns only one third of the total income and owns less than one tenth of the world’s resources.  In a country like India which is the home  for over 400 million women, the economic status of women is in pathetic condition and they have always been discriminated against men in human resource development with  utter disregard to their actual and potential contribution to the national progress in general and agricultural progress in particular. The largest sector of India’s economy, agriculture, contributes to 37 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) and accounts for 60 percent of the employment.

Abstract

Women emancipation, women liberation, women awareness, women upliftment, women empowerment, gender equity etc. are the buzz words our media cashes on. But the question remains: What has made us all to talk about her in 21st century? Unfortunate, but true that women, constituting one half of the total world population, have been treated as second class citizens and denied even the basic rights. Men have dominated her by neglecting her talent, capabilities and potential. Many measures were undertaken by the Government for the betterment of the women such as the creation of National Commission for Women, Parliamentary Committee on Empowerment of Women, Gender Budgeting besides creating many disciplines in various institutions/Universities for women studies and passing several   pro women laws to protect her rights. But this is not enough. What is needed is the freedom from disability of any kind lying in the minds of various sections of the society. A woman need not be pitied but given the due she deserves.

Introduction

Fruits are important sources of vitamins, carbohydrates, fiber and sugar. A large variety of fruits are grown in India, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. In India, grapes occupies fifth position amongst fruit crops with a production of 16.77 million tonnes from an area of 0.64 million ha (FAO, 2009). The total grape export from India during the year 2007-08 was 96,723 tonnes worth Rs 317.84 crores. (APEDA, 2009). Grape is an excellent source of many nutrients and phytochemicals, able to contribute to a healthy diet. Grapefruit is a good source of vitamin C and pectin fiber. The major varieties of grapes grown in India are Thomson seedless, Sonaka, Anab-e-Shahi, Perlette, Banglore blue, Pusa seedless, Beauty seedless etc. (NRCG, 2009). Red grapes are grown in large quantities, especially for wine and juice production. Grapes are used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, grape seed oil and some kinds of candy.

Abstract

Variously defined endophytes are highly diverse in plants in natural ecosystems, and most of them are symbiotic with of them are Asymptomatic presence of endophytic fungi in internal tissues on healthy host plants are able to play vital roles in physiology and biochemical processes. As a result of this interaction endophyte produces chemical substances having various applications. This chapter provides a brief review of certain grass and non-grass endophytes capable to extend beneficial impacts on host plants to sustain the unfavourable conditions of abiotic stresses. However, biotic stresses are also a matter of great concern, where endophytes can play important roles in combating the unfavourable situation. Endophytic fungi used in bio-control and other agriculture related sectors are also  highlighted in this review. Endophytic fungi producing volatile organic compounds reported from all over the world and their various applications find place in this article which has opened new frontiers of bioprospecting of endophytic fungi.

Microbes that live inside plant tissues without causing disease are termed as endophytes. Endophytes have been found in all parts of plant viz., seeds, roots, stems, leaves, fruits etc. Within these organs, there is evidence of endophytes living in apoplastic intercellular space within parenchyma tissues and xylem vessel apoplast. Endophytic bacteria have been isolated from both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, ranging from woody tree species to herbaceous crop plants. Further, a single plant may be a host for several different bacterial species. They are consistently present in the root, stem, leaf, fruit and tuber tissues of a wide range of agricultural, horticultural and forest species. All plants in nature harbor a diverse community of endophytic bacteria which can positively affect host plant growth.

The potential of endophytic bacteria to fix nitrogen, promote plant growth and suppress plant diseases has renewed interest in such associations. It is advantageous to have the endophytic plant growth promoting organisms safely inside the plant, which could supply substantial amounts of nitrogen and other nutrients, growth hormones and other beneficial effects to the crop plants without the interference of the rhizosphere soil environment. Furthermore, plant growth promotion is often greater when it is induced by endophytes rather than by rhizosphere bacteria.

Abstract

In its natural environment, a plant faces various types of stressors. In fact, stress in moderation is a welcome event in plants. Only when it is in excess, would it compromise the productivity of plants. Beyond a threshold, stress (biotic and abiotic) has a detrimental effect on plant growth causing extensive yield losses in crop plants worldwide. Plants being sessile, have evolved a complex set of mechanisms to perceive the changes in the environment. Plants respond to minimize the potential damage due to stress while simultaneously preserving resources vital for their growth and development. The chapter presents an overview of various types of biotic and abiotic factors that act as plant stressors and the mechanisms by which plants respond to these stresses. The chapter concludes with a perspective on how the plant’s innate stress response machinery can be exploited for achieving higher tolerance to stress in crop plants.

Introduction

The basic needs of life are food, clothing and shelter. In the 21^st century a fourth need added to mankind is energy. According to the laws of physics, energy is defined as capacity to do work. Energy, economics and the environment are mutually dependent. Also, there is very close relationship between agriculture and energy. The level and pattern of energy use in agricultural production system depends on variety of agronomic and socio-economic factors. Energy use in agriculture encouraged maximization of yields from limited available arable land, minimization of labour intensive operations and improving standard of living. Efficient and effective energy use in agriculture is one of the conditions for sustainable agricultural production, since it provides financial savings.

7.1. What is Energy Conservation?

In order to protect resources for future use and to lessen environmental degradation, energy conservation refers to actions performed to limit energy use.

.2. What is Energy Efficiency?

The definition of energy efficiency is the use of less energy to carry out a task or achieve a goal. Homes, buildings, and manufacturing facilities that use less energy to manufacture things require less energy to heat, cool, and operate appliances and electronics.

13.1 Introduction

At a national level, the agricultural sector is one of the major potential users of energy in the Indian context. Further, it is often highly dependent on the supply of electricity and fuel in order to function properly. The term “agriculture” refers to all on-farm activities required for farming, raising animals, and associated activities associated with farmers, growers, and entrepreneurs. Fuels such as petroleum and electricity are primarily used for the operation of pump sets and other operations. In the future, this may result in problems with supply and price. Moreover, India has relatively small reserves of crude oil and will eventually be forced to import more crude oil to make up for the lack of reserves. In order to save energy and money on the farm, farmers must identify opportunities for energy conservation on the farm in order to maximize energy efficiency. 

Introduction

Energy Consumption is considered as the energy used to do any task in any kind of a simple domestic building to a complicated manufacturing industry. For instance, in a household, energy is consumed in the form of electricity used to run an Air Conditioner to make a room cool, gas used to cook a dish etc. In a car industry, energy is consumed in the form of electricity to manufacture a car part. In the transport sector, petrol or diesel or gasoline is used as a run a car or bike or other vehicles.

2.1 Time and Energy Requirements of Work
The time and energy requirements of work can vary significantly depending on several factors related to the nature of the work, the worker’s capabilities and motivation, and the workplace environment. Let’s explore each aspect:
1. Nature of the Work
Complexity: work that requires high levels of skill, expertise, and problemsolving will generally demand more time and energy.
Physical demands: jobs that involve manual labor or physically strenuous activities can be more energy-intensive.
Cognitive demands: intellectual or creative work can be mentally taxing, requiring concentration and focus for extended periods.
2. Worker Factors
Physical health: a worker’s overall health and fitness level can impact how much time and energy they can dedicate to their job.
Skill set and experience: experienced workers might complete tasks more efficiently, reducing time requirements.
Motivation: highly motivated individuals tend to invest more energy and time into their work.
Work-life balance: if a worker is dealing with excessive stress or personal issues, it can affect their ability to concentration and perform optimally.
3. Workplace Factors
Work environment: a comfortable, well-designed workspace can contribute to increased productivity and reduced fatigue.
Technology and tools: access to advanced tools and technology can streamline tasks and save time and energy.
Support and collaboration: a positive work culture and supportive colleagues can enhance job satisfaction and productivity.
Workload and deadlines: unrealistic workloads and tight deadlines can lead to stress and exhaustion.

The rapid growth of Large Language Models has produced remarkable advances in artificial intelligence but has also increased computational requirements, energy consumption and environmental impact. This chapter examines the relationship between large-scale AI development, energy efficiency and sustainable computing. Modern AI models may contain billions or even trillions of parameters and require extensive datasets, powerful accelerators and energy-intensive data-centre infrastructure for training and inference. The chapter investigates the environmental consequences associated with model development, including energy consumption, carbon emissions, cooling requirements and resource utilization. It examines model-level optimization techniques such as pruning, quantization and knowledge distillation as methods for reducing computational demands. System-level approaches, including specialized hardware accelerators, energy-efficient data centres, improved cooling systems, renewable energy and intelligent workload scheduling, are also considered. The distinction between energy efficiency and broader sustainability is emphasized, with attention to metrics such as energy per inference, total energy consumption, carbon emissions and hardware lifecycle impacts. The chapter further highlights the importance of transparent sustainability reporting, green computing and governance policies. Sustainable AI development requires balancing model performance and innovation with responsible resource use and long-term environmental objectives

5.1. Introduction

The energy equivalent can be considered to be an alternate energy unit, precisely related to units such as the joule, calorie, or Btu. In energy talks, many units are employed. They are divided into two categories: (a) basic units and (b) source-based units.

Introduction
The study of energy flow through the ecosystem is known as Ecological Energetic. Ecological Energetic is the scientific discipline that investigates the movement ofenergy within an ecosystem. The process of energy transfer that takes place within a food chain is referred to as energy flow. The functioning of all species in an ecosystem is dependent on the energy they derive from the energy flow. The ecosystemsustains itself and achieves stability through the process of energy transfer.
Energy Transfer/Flow
Solar energy is the primary source of energy that enters the food chain at the level ofproducers, which are plants. Through the process of  photosynthesis, plants utilize solar energy to transform it into chemical energy, which is then used to produce various components of plants such as leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks, and roots. Plants are referred to as producers in the ecosystem because they have the ability to transformthe sun’s energy directly into their tissues, allowing them to thrive. Herbivores consume the plants as nourishment, so obtaining energy. A significant portion of this energy is expended on the metabolic processes of these organisms, including respiration, digestion, tissue growth, blood circulation, and body temperature regulation. Energy is also expended in activities such as foraging, seeking refuge,reproducing, and nurturing offspring. The predators rely on the herbivores as their source of food.