eChapters

Common name    :    English- Neem tree
        Hindi- Neem
        Odia- Nimba
Family    :    Meliaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree (Fig. 14 a), very commonly planted and often self shown. Also seen in forests as well as in wild. It is cultivated and naturalized throughout India.

General Charcter
The leaf of the plant is about 20-38 cm in length, leaflets 5-9 pairs and obliguely lanceolate. Flower is white in clolour and fragrant. The plant bark, leaves and flowers are bitter in taste. The plant bears flowers during February to May. The plant fruiting occurs during June to July.

Common name    :    English- Jack Fruits
        Hindi- Kathal
        Odia- Panasa

Family    :    Moraceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a tree (Fig. 13 a) found in wild as well as cultivated in farms. It was introduced and has become naturalized in many parts of India.

General Characters
The plant is an evergreen tree that grows up to 20-30 meter tall and 80-200 cm in diameter with evergreen, alternate, glossy, leathery leaves reaching up to 9 inch long. Leaves are oval in mature trees. All parts of the plant contain sticky, white latex. Inflorescence is solitary, borne axillary on special lateral short leafy shoots arising from older branches. Fruits are large arising from the tree trunk and weighting about 10-50 kg. the exterior of the fruit is green or yellow when ripe and composed of numerous hard, cone like points attached to a thick and rubbery, pale yellow or whitish wall. The plant flowers during December-February and bears fruits during June-July.

Common name    :    English - Wire grass/spread grass
        Odia- Suan
Family    :    Poaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig. 12 a) widely found in agricultural lands, hill sides, road sides, river bank etc. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant ascending to erect, grows up to 3-4 feet in height. The leaves may be flat or rolled. The inflorescence either panicle like or raceme with spiky branches. Flowers are tiny and hairs like awns seen protruding from each flower. The plant flowers during September-November.

Common name    :    English- Betelnut
        Hindi- Supari
        Odia- Gua
Family    :    Arecaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree, (Fig. 11 a) naturalized and commonly cultivated throughout India.

General Character
The plant is perennial, grows up to 20 meters in height and 8-12 inches in diameter. The stem is solitary, slender and erect. The leaf of the plant is 1.5-2 meter long, pinnate with numerous crowded leaflets. Fruit is a coriaceous drupe, ovoid, 3.7-5 cm, smooth orange, with a single seed with truncate base. The plant flowers and bears fruits throughout the year.

Common name     :    English- Onion
        Hindi- Pyaz
        Odia- Piaja

Family    :    Amaryllidaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a herb (Fig. 10 a). The plant is commonly cultivated along the river banks during winter season.

General Characters
The leaves of the plants are cylindric, fistular and look like tubes. Flower of the plant is white or greenish white with a short pedicel. The plant flowers during January- February.

Common name    :    English- Rain Tree
        Hindi- Gulabi Siris 
        Odia- Chakunda
Family    :    Mimosaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree common in dry, lowlands ,grasslands, coastal bush lands, forests and also planted in avenues. It is distributed throughout the tropical countries (Fig 9 a).

Common name    :    English- Wood apple
        Hindi- Bel
        Odia- Bela
Family    :    Rutaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a tree, (Fig 8 a) common in scrub and open forests, also planted near temples and villages. The plant is usually distributed throughout the greater part of India.

Common name    :    English- Pith plant
        Hindi- Sola
        Odia- Sola
Family    :    Fabaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig.7a), commonly found in ponds, swampy areas, lakes and other water bodies. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is an erect, perennial herb. Its stem is about 2 cm in diameter. The leaves are sessile reaching up to 15 cm long, leaflets 25-50 pairs, alternate or opposite. The flowers are yellow in colour and about 8 cm long, broadly ovate and acute. The plant flowers between August and October.

Common name    :    English- Red Lucky Seed
        Hindi- Badi gumchi
         Odia- Manda kaincha

Family    :    Mimosaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a tree (Fig. 6a) often found in gardens and village sides and distributed in different states of India.

General Characters: 
It is a large tree with grey bark. The leaves are compound bipinnate, green when young, turning yellow when old and having 5-6 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are yellowish, small and grow in dense drooping and about 5-15 cm long. Fruits are curved, hanging, green pods that turn brown, coil up and split open as they ripen to reveal small bright red seeds. The plant flowers during March-May.

Common name    :    English- Prickly chaff flower
        Hindi- Chirchita 
        Odia- Apamaranga
Family    :    Amaranthaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig 5 a), fairly common weed that grows on waste lands and distributed throughout India.

Common name    :    English- Red hot cat’s tail
        Odia- Bilei lanja
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant usually seen along the road sides and often grown in gardens (fig 4 a).

General Characters
It is a bushy shrub grows up to 1.8 to 3.7 meters in height. The leaves are ever green, oval, 10-23 cm long and 7.5-10 cm in width with pointed ends. Flowers are borne in attractive shades, ranging in colour from deep purple to bright red and clustered in velvety catkins, which are about 30-50 cm long. The plant flowers throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Indian mallow
        Hindi- Kanghi 
        Odia- Pedipedica

Family    :    Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig.3 a) commonly found in waste places, along road sides, as weeds in garden and in forests. It is distributed throughout India.

Common name: English- Indian liquorice
                           Hindi- Ratti/Gunchi 
                           Odia- Kaincha
Family : Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a common weed (Fig. 2 a) found in forest and it is also seen growing on road sides, gardens, waste places and sometimes planted in gardens.

Common name:     English – Lady’s finger
    Hindi – Bhindi
    Odia- Bhendi      
Family:     Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 1 a), widely cultivated as vegetable in the tropical countries including India.

11.1 Introduction

The laws governing the flow of water in wells are referred to as the hydraulics of wells. Just like surface water flows from a higher elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, groundwater also flows from a region of higher water table to a region of lower water table. This difference of water table measured by any two piezometers divided by the longitudinal distance between them is called as hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient plays a dominant role in deciding the flow of groundwater. This hydraulic gradient together with the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material forms the main law of well hydraulics called as Darcy’s law. An understanding of Darcy’s law together with some other laws as discussed subsequently in this chapter is essential in order to know the discharge of a well in a particular formation. Darcy’s law is valid for studying groundwater flow in alluvial formations. However, it is not valid for aquifers having hard rock areas.

10.1 Introduction

During rain or heavy irrigation, a part of the rainfall or irrigated water moves below the effective root zone of the crop which moves further below and adds to the water table lying above the impermeable bed or hard rock which is called as  ground  water  reservoir. At  times  the  accumulated  surface  water  is  also recharged to the soil reservoir both naturally as well as artificially that add to the underlying ground water reservoir. This groundwater is an important source of water for irrigation as well as domestic uses. It is the most abundant fresh water resource of the earth. Underground water reservoirs contain large stock of fresh water resources. Total quantity of groundwater within 800 m distance below  the  ground  surface  is  more than  30  times  the  total  water  in  all fresh water lakes, more than 60 times the total water in soil and other unsaturated rock materials, more than 300 times the water vapour in the atmosphere and 3000 times the average volume of all rivers and rivulets in the world (Lenka, 2001). But the distribution of groundwater is not uniform.

Bhuva is a small village in north-west Gujarat – India.  My mother was born there. The loving people of Bhuva called me ‘Bhano’ (Sister’s Son / Nephew) and it was my favourite place to go as a child. I have my fondest memories of Bhuva, but could not visit for several decades, until when I was once at the Junagadh Campus of Gujarat Agricultural University, to inaugurate the International Conference on New Developments in Agriculture. Bhuva was not too far and I decided to go there. Soon as I reached, a familiar face, now aged with time, recognized me from a distance and with tears rolling from his old eyes (and mine) he hugged me, calling out “MaroBhano, MaroBhano” (My sister’s son, my sister’s son)! Now in his eighties, it was overwhelming to meet Nanji Ata, who I always remembered being wise, educated and cheerful. He was a relatively progressive farmer with about 6 to 7 acres of land, a few cows and a buffalo. Though water was scarce and saline, he managed to make a good living and was considered a well to do man.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

Our Soils – Our Waters & COP22

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems.

Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day.

In contrast to the traditional universities, agricultural universities have been entrusted with the Herculean task of technology dissemination at the grass root level such that the package of practices evolved by the agricultural scientists should reach out the end-users, viz. farmers , for adopting in the field, with consequent increment in the farm productivity and farmer’s income.

This unique mandate has been assigned to agricultural universities on the pattern of land grant colleges of the United States. Such vision and trust, envisaged by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his devout lieutenants, herald creation of state agricultural universities (SAUs) in the early 1960s. The key role played by SAUs in the first green revolution and agricultural human resources development have been regarded as the milestones in the history of India post-independence, that made the country self-sufficient in food production and, in turn, to self reliance in milk, vegetables, fruits and inland fish production.

"Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in the Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over).

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

Rivers are the most important system for water, for irrigation and human settlement. Historically, civilizations always nucleated near rivers, and latter also had social and religious significance. Rivers in India are considered holy and play the most important part in the lives of people, fauna & flora and the future environmental system.

The Ganga Basin is the largest river basin in India which includes the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Ghagra, the Gandak, the Kaveri basin etc. Compared to these, the Vishwamitri River, situated between Mahi River in North and Narmada River in South in Central Gujarat is a small seasonal river but it is very important for the city of Vadodara and Central Gujarat region. This seasonal river originates from Pavagadh hills and flows east to west. It is a typical small river with the kind of problems in most rivers in India and other countries – liquid and solid wastes, enouncements, blocking of water ways, floods in monsoon months and dry dumping basin during most other months etc.

All agriculture universities have three main Directorates – Education, Research and Extension. Of the three, I have often observed that Extension Department comes in for maximum criticism. ‘Loose links’and ‘need to do much more in transfer of knowledge and technology’ are frequently emphasized at various levels – especially in meetings with farmers groups.

This is understandable – as it is said that less than 10% - often less than 6%, of lab scale knowledge and development reach the farmers fields in developing countries and even in many ‘developed’ counties. The situation is much more challenging when we consider a large population of small and marginal farmers – who as we saw can play extremely important role in eco-agriculture. A large percent of such farmers – women and men are practicing eco friendlyagriculture without realizing it. Their ‘ignorance’ can be converted in to advantage and new opportunity. The age old extension practice of reaching farmers through meetings, visit , seminars, camps, demonstrations all have limitations and need to be ‘scaled up’. New developments in information and communication Technology offer a great opportunity for a big jump in reaching the unreached. Again to alarge population of ‘Green Revolution’ – there is a new hope and opportunity.

Saline Water Agriculture has been drawing interest as one of the solutions for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salt-tolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential.

It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.

Bioshields offer barriers of vegetation, shrubs, small and big trees and if integrated as a well designed system they can greatly help our coastal as well as inland areas. Though primarily looked at for coastal regions, under a broader definition Bioshields can play important role in semi-desert areas, hills, etc. also.

Why Bioshield?

Bioshields or Biobarriers can make a major contribution in minimizing the effects of storms, cyclones and Tsunamis and at the same time offer short and long term ecological and livelihood benefits.

The recent earthquake in Nepal brings back memories of 26th January 2001. While the nation was busy in celebrating Republic Day, an earthquake shattered Gujarat especially Kutch and Saurashtra regions. A large number of buildings and houses collapsed within moments. Thousands were injured and many lost their lives and many more became homeless.

Kutch received quick responses from all over the world and a large number of individuals, institutions, government and semi-government bodies, professional experts, religious and social organizations etc. sprang into action to bring back some normalcy in the lives. However, long-term rehabilitation program based on scientific planning is most vital after such disasters.

It is estimated that the country needs about 245mt of food grains, 30mt of sugar and jaggery, 7 lakh of tea, 1.7 lakh t of coffee, 10mt of vegetable oil and 17m bales of cotton. For realizing this, irrigated agriculture has to play an important role. To achieve this water use efficiency (WUE) in the irrigation sector has to be improved considerably as bulk of the available water is used in agriculture. But, with the ever-increasing population and industrialization problems, the demand for water by these sectors is bound to increase manyfolds in future. The requirement of water by different sectors during 2025 is estimated to be 105 m ham, which is 30 m ha m more than the present one. The share of water utilization for agriculture is expected to get reduced from the present percentage of 8~ to a value of 73 by 2025. Further, the demand for water for agricultural purposes is estimated to increase from 470 krrr’ to 740 krrr’ in a period of four decades (Table 1). During the same period there will be four­fold increase in the water demand for non-agriculture purposes.

Since many decades environmentalists have warned of perils of chemicalised sports grounds, golf courses and cricket fields. They warn that our health is inextricably linked to the widespread use of toxic chemicals and also complain about the non-availability of safe alternatives.
Eco-sustainable sports fields must use the methods : 
    ·    That do not pollute
    ·    That are environment-friendly and effective
    ·    That economize on the use of water and energy

Normally we associate our agriculture and food supply with farms and villages. The new trends of greener cities and urban and peri urban horticulture (UPH) are emerging very fast. Towns and cities in the world’s developing countries are growing at great speed. Ten years ago, an estimated 40 percent of the developing world’s population or 2 billion people lived in urban areas. Since then, their numbers have expanded twice as fast as total population growth, to more than 2.5 billion. By 2025, more than half the developing world’s population of 3.5 billion will be urban. Again most of the world’s fastest growing cities are in Asia and Africa with young population.

Indian Government has several developmental programmes to promote agriculture and rural sector. It includes Drought Prone Area Program, Antodaya Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme, Hill Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Intensive Jawahar Rojgar Yojna and Employment Assurance Scheme, Indira AwaasYojna, Integrated Waste Land Development Programme, National Food Security Mission, National Horticulture Mission, etc. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has the main focus to provide guaranteed employment for 100 days in a year to every rural household. Since 2014, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan has been a major initiative by the Government of India.

Reducing the input costs in farming, especially agrochemicals and improving the yields of farm products in environmentally sustainable way, is one of the most important challenges. World over, the understanding of alternative eco-friendly inputs and intelligent integration of such products with the farming practices are the areas which need to be emphasized, understood and demonstrated. Our experience of working with farmers in different regions has convinced us that they all are looking for alternative, eco-friendly and cost effective inputs and the only way to convince them is practical demonstrations. 
Eco safe farming is a global challenge and needs combined efforts of NGO_s and farmers bodies, private and public sector industries and scientists in the institutions and universities. There are many challenges and many success stories and some typical once are listed here.

Large quantities of crop residues are produced and if properly used, they can provide cost effective means for supplying organic matter, plant nutrients and improved soil health. The highly lignocellulosic nature of crop residues indicate their potential role in maintaining soil organic matter and enriching the soils with N-rich microbial biomass resulting from decompositions. However, their indiscriminate handling often burning leads to decline in soil health, air pollution and overall loss. Since most crop residues find use as feed and fuel, efficient recycling of the remaining amount can have very significant and positive effect.

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment.

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich (in proper C:N ratio) materials.

At an Agri Summit, I had a very difficult task to chair a session on “Sustainable Future”, with two well-known but extremely opposite personalities. On my left was a globally well-known environment activist talking about all the evils of chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. On my right was the President of Pesticide Association with equally strong views about how the chemical pesticides have greatly helped in feeding the hungry world. My task was further made difficult by a large lobby of green activists in the audience and also a number of seasoned industrialists with opposite views. Such a scenario is becoming increasingly common.

To many Bio Fertilizer is still an unclear term. Often they are identified as urban and rural organic wastes, plant extracts, organic components etc. However, Bio Fertilizer is mostly commonly referred to the use of soil micro organisms to increase the uptake and availability of plant nutrients.

Bio Fertilizer have gained a good deal of momentum and the industry after a slow start is now gaining more and more importance globally. The major reasons for this are that they:

Higher Farm Production with Lower Input Cost

There is a great need to reduce the input costs and at the same time improve the farm productivity in a sustainable manner. A model has been worked out based on a number of field demonstration studies in different parts of India, Africa and Far Eastern countries. A model in which input cost can be reduced by nearly 20 percent and at the same time the crop production can be enhanced upto 20 percent is possible and can be a boon to farmers in most parts of the world. This is the model, which can be easily adopted in an evolutionary way. As suggested by Jonathan Foley (BOX – 1), use of high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as approaches borrows from organic farming, we can boost farm productivity substantially.

African agriculture is in crisis, and Africa’s farmland is losing its fertility at an alarming rate. Farmers grow the same crops in the same fields year. They don’t fertilize, and they don’t terrace their fields. When the soil wears out, the clear a new piece of land (wwww.npr.org). N. Kozana Diamini Luma, the Chairperson of the African Union Commission has emphasized that ‘the year 2014 – the year of Agriculture in Africa’ will be used as an opportunity to accelerate the drive for food security. The major thrust for that has to be on ensuring that the farmers make their profession on economic activity that generate wellbeing for all in a sustainable manner (1, 2).

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words are derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ means house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.

The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.

It has been repeatedly proving that Science& Technology that is close and in harmony with nature is proving winner in the long run. If the past 60 years led to the Green Revolution in agriculture which often became Greed Revolution, the next 60 year should be the emergence of love for nature, diversity and Sustainable Green Revolution. The two goals – Sustainability and Productivity are inter-related.

It is also said that the main difference between the past and today is that our problems are truly global. We are also aware that globally and nationally the rich-poor divide is growing and though world produces enough food, nearly 800 million people remain food insecure. Among 8 millennium goals, eradication of poverty and hunger and environmental sustainability are perhaps the most prominent and complimentary.

In his classic book ‘The Ascent of Man’, Bronowski has written, “When I was a young man, we all thought that mastery came from man’s domination of his physical environment. Now we have learned that real mastery comes from understanding and moulding the living environment.” Our Biosphere, the living environment that supports us all, has problems and we humans are mainly responsible. We do not live ‘gently’ on the earth. The seven billion of us require air, water, food, energy, housing and amenities and we have developed the earth to provide them and have also created problems. That the problems exist are serious is the bad news. That we are recognizing them and that man has shown ability to organize and grow in ascending order from time to time is the good news.

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal symbionts are important natural resources to revive degraded and deforested areas. Artificial inoculum of these mycobionts improves the growth of tree seedlings in nutrient poor soils due to the formation of extensive network of fungal mycelium responsible for the transfer of water and nutrients to the plants. Seedlings of tree species like, Pinus insularis, Quercus griffithii and Schima wallichii with ectomycorrhizae formed by Suillus bovinus, Boletus edulis and Scleroderma citrinum were studied in field condition. The study was conducted at two different stages of degraded sites. Results of the study indicated that seedlings with ectomycorrhizae were able to generate numerous lateral roots of greater length and thereby utilize water and nutrients more effectively than non- mycorrhizal ones The degree of mycorrhizal development varied in different host species with different fungal species. There was a strong relation between the colonization by mycorrhiza and the survival of seedlings. The study has suggested that mycorrhiza has a potential in reclamation of soil and reforestation of degraded land. S. bovinus., B. edulis and S. citrinum successfully colonized and promoted the growth of P. insulates Q. griffithii and S. wallichii respectively in reforestation programmes of degraded lands of Nagaland.

Abstract

The word “mycorrhiza” literally means “fungus root” to describe the mutualistic association between roots of higher plants and certain fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are the most common and widely occurring of all the mycorrhizal associations and have great economic significance. They belong to the phylum Glomeromycota. Mycorrhizal associations are potential factors in determining the diversity in ecosystems. They can probably modify the structure and functioning of a plant community in a complex and unpredictable way. Currently there is considerable resistance against the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, because of their hazardous influence on the environment, and on soil, plant, animal, and human health. Hence, use of biofertilizers and biocontrol agents are recommended in practical agriculture/horticulture/forestry.

Abstract

Photosynthetic blooms of toxin producing marine algae are often referred to as “red tides”. Proliferations of freshwater toxin-producing cyanobacteria are simply called “cyanobacterial blooms” or “toxic algal blooms.” Biotoxins of cyanobacteria are water-soluble and heat stable and they are released upon aging or lysis of the cells. The primary types of cyanobacterial biotoxins involves three types of toxins: hepatotoxins (microcystin; cylindrospermopsin and nodularin), which are taken up by the liver and cause weakness and anorexia (loss of appetite); neurotoxins (usually anatoxin and saxitoxin), which effect the nervous system and dermatotoxins (aplysiatoxin and lyngbyatoxin, LPS), which cause skin and mucous irritations upon contact. Unlike freshwater toxic algal blooms, marine algal toxins become a problem primarily because they may concentrate in shellfish and fish that are subsequently eaten by humans, causing syndromes known as paralytic shellfish poisoning/PSP (paralysis due to saxitoxin and gonyaulatoxins), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning/DSP (diarrhea due to okadaic acid) , amnesic shellfish poisoning /ASP(memory disturbances due to domoic acid), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning/NSP (paresthesia due to brevetoxin; also bronchial spasms). Coral reef fishes are the vectors of another algal poisoning, the ciguatera fish poisoning/CFP (paresthesia, warm-cold sense inversion etc., due to ciguatoxins and maitotoxin).

Abstract

The traditional forage production systems and grazing lands are under extreme pressure due to the population growth of both human and livestock, decreasing area and inputs. In the central India, especially the Bundelkhand region, the soil is highly weathered, degraded and have low inherent nutrient, which was further worsened due to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, for enhancing crop production to meet the escalating demand of the population.

Abstract

Microorganisms that harbour in the root region are the most befitting candidates for use as biocontrol agents. The rhizosphere provides the frontline defense for root against attack by pathogens. Pathogens face a complicated phenomena of antagonism from roots. They also compete with each other for site of colonization on the root surface and plant nutrients. The ideal biocontrol agent introduces and /or promotes the antagonists only, whenever required and are most effective in minimizing the wasteful application of inoculum to non-targets. Many genera belonging to bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and viruses are used as biocontrol agents to combat several important plant diseases. The present review focuses on the use of bacterial antagonists ,particularly rhizobacteria, as biocontrol agents of fungal diseases of plants , their mechanism of action, molecular and genetic basis of antagonistic property and possible genetic manipulations to bring about desirable changes. 

Abstract

Extensive occurrence of alkaline soils has been reported from the Indo-Gangetic plains of Northern India, which is commonly known as ‘usar’ or ‘reh’. High alkalinity and high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of such soil render it inhospitable for normal crop production. Research efforts over the past few decades have resulted in evolving a number of practices for the reclamation and management of such soils. However, application of biological inputs in combination with some moderately salt tolerant plant species seems to be a better option. AM fungi is well known to enhance the ability of plants to cope with environmental stresses generally prevalent in the degraded ecosystems and stress conditions by providing a number of nutritional and non-nutritional benefits. Since isolates of AM fungi differ in their tolerance to adverse physical and chemical conditions in soil and are better adapted to their native stressed microhabitat, selection of appropriate native AMF isolate is necessary for any large scale reclamation program. Taxonomic diversity of AM fungi in the alkaline soils of Upper Gangetic plains of district Allahabad and adjoining areas has been investigated and it was found that such soils have a detrimental effect on the AM spore population, distribution and diversity. Maximum spore population occurred in winter and minimum in summer. Glomus followed by Acaulospora was the most dominant genus. Acaulospora scrobiculata and Glomus fasciculatum were the most frequent species followed by Glomus mosseae and Glomus aggregatum. Glomus fasciculatum was the most abundant species followed by Glomus mosseae and Acaulospora longula.

Abstract

Today more than 70% of energy is generated by coal-based thermal power plants. Indian coal contains about 40% ash, these power plants generate enormous amounts of fly ash, which is dumped in the nearby areas. This creates not only economy constraints but also imposes serious environmental problems, which are the potential hazards to the ecosystem. However, recent attempts in India and abroad are being made for biological association of fly ash e.g. in soil improvement, in wasteland management and also as a source of essential plant nutrients for nutrient deficient soil in terrestrial eco-system and agro-ecosystem. Fly ash has been found to have manifold advantages in agriculture especially in modification of soil texture and bulk density, in optimization of soil pH, in improvement of water holding capacity of soil, in the improvement of yield as a micronutrient supplement to soil and in creation of conducive condition for better plant growth. In this article utilization of fly ash along with VAM fungi and other microbes especially nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilizers in removing the constraints of salt affected soils has been discussed.

Abstract

The ability of life to dwell in extreme environments on our mother planet earth right from a thirsty desert environment to highly water saturated oceans, gave the scientists a new area to work in during the 1990’s. The discovery of microbial life which had the ability to survive in conditions which were highly inhospitable for the normal life gave rise to a revolution in the field of science and technology. Extremophiles are one of the most primitive forms of life on earth since they have accustomed themselves to the present day harsh conditions compared to the normal environment. The last few years have seen a massive increase in their discovery, since the areas which once were thought barren by the scientists are now found inhabited by the microbial life. The extremophiles endure conditions right from extreme temperatures, pressure, salt concentration to radiations, metal tolerance, pH etc. During the past few years the industrial applications associated with the extremophiles and their products have led to their intensive exploration. Keeping in view the present and the future scenario, extensive efforts are still required in order to exploit the extreme environments for extremophiles and their products.

Abstract

A field study of seven arid districts of Rajasthan was undertaken to evaluate the occurrence of selected tree species and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) associations with them. Five genera were identified in the rhizosphere of these selected tree species. A high diversity of AMF was observed which varied between different host tree species. Among the five genera, Glomus occurred most frequently, with four species, Acaulospora and Gigaspora were found with three species, while Entrophospora and Scutellospora was detected with two species. Gigaspora margarita, Gigaspora rosea, Glomus deserticola, Glomus constrictum, Glomus fasciculatum, Glomus mosseae and Scutellospora calospora were the most dominant species. The AMF spore density was not clearly affected by the host tree suggesting that biotic factors may be relatively less important than abiotic/edaphic factors for establishing population pattern. The spore density of AMF had a strong positive correlation with soil pH and organic carbon content and a negative correlation with Olsen’s P content of the soil. The association with AMF of these tree species native to the harsh environmental conditions of the Indian Thar Desert may play a significant role in the re-establishment and conservation of these multipurpose desert tree species.