eChapters

Background and Technology Intervention

To increase the water use efficiency coupling piped network and micro irrigation, Department of Agricultural Engineering along with the Tamil Nadu Government introduced a project on “Water conveyance works of modernization of on-farm irrigation network in 5(R) and 7(R) sluices Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP)” covering a total area of 109.86 acres in both the sluices.

Significance of this project is to improve the water use efficiency in canal command areas where the farmers were unable to cultivate annual / long term crop due to alternate supply of water in each zone. PAP command area has 4 zones and each zone receives water once in 135 days in a 2 year span through open channel leading farmers to adopt flood irrigation.

Introduction
Globally, the agricultural sector plays an important role in poverty reduction, food security and promotion of nutritious food (Jones & Ejeta, 2016). Although agricultural crop production is essential, there are challenges associated with plants due to pests and diseases infestation in the value chain of crop production. Plant health problems can be resolved through appropriate diagnosis and identification of plant pests affecting agricultural (Ausher et al., 1996). However, Oerke (2006) reported that 40 per cent of crop yield losses are caused by plant pests and diseases of economic importance. The majority of smallholder farmers are faced with risks associated with pests and diseases in plant production. To address challenges faced by smallholder farmers, plant health clinics are important for plant pests and disease diagnosis. The plant health clinics can be defined as a system in which farmers obtain advisory services on the plant pest problem affecting agricultural crops and provide management control strategy for pest management (Alokit et al., 2014). There are many plant health clinics initiatives within the Indian region that provides plant pests and diseases advisory services to all categories of the farmers (Boa et al., 2016). Many plant clinics in developing countries which are run by international research institutions are more efficient and effective as compared to those not run by the research institutions. This review seeks to investigate and assess the state of global plant clinics with the aim of obtaining the efficient and effective plant health clinic model for South Africa. The knowledge, awareness, availability and accessibility of basic plant healthcare to smallholder farmers for plant pests and diseases diagnosis to ensure early detection, pest management and pest reporting remain a challenge. Furthermore, there is limited literature and research on plant health clinics’ establishment and its importance to smallholder farmers in the Indian developing country.
Background of the Plant Health Clinics
To date, there are about 34 countries operating plant health clinics globally and it is estimated that there are 4,500 plant clinics across the globe Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI), 2020; Tambo et al., 2020). These include plant clinics in Africa, South America and Asia respectively (Boa, 2009; CABI 2020). The first plant health clinics were established in 2003 in Bolivia (Bentley et al., 2009; Boa, 2009). In Africa alone, plant clinics were established with the help of CABI to assist smallholders and household to respond effectively and efficiently towards plant pests and diseases. According to Boa et al. (2016), there are two types of plant health clinics in terms of service provisions, namely (1) Fixed structure with appropriate laboratory equipment

ABSTRACT

The continuing depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer mainly due to release of man-made atmospheric pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have resulted in the increase of solar ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B; 280-315 nm) reaching to the Earth’s surface. UV-B is a small (less than 1% of total energy) but highly active component of the solar spectrum that can penetrate to biologically significant depths in lakes, ponds, rivers and oceans. It has been demonstrated that UV-B can cause wide ranging effects including mutagenesis, destruction of proteins/enzymes, inhibition of a number of vital metabolic processes and formation of thymine dimers in DNA leading to death of a number of organisms. A number of microbes including strict photoautotrophs always grow in lighted habitats and thereby always sense and face the stress of solar UV-B radiation. Similarly, humans are also exposed to varying levels of UV-B radiation depending upon the altitudes and latitudes of the location. A wide ranging effect of UV-B such as cataracts, skin cancer, immunosupression etc. has been reported in human. Damaging effects of increased UV-B radiation has also been shown in a number of microbes. These effects include inhibition of growth and survival, decrease in photosynthetic pigments, loss of PS II and RuBISCO activity, inactivation of nitrogenase enzyme and inhibitory effects on several other metabolic processes. Among photosynthetic pigments, phycobiliproteins seem to be the primary target of action since phycobilisomes are completely disintegrated after UV-B exposure. In this contribution an attempt has been made to put in perspective the main effects of UV-B radiation on microbes and human health.

Introduction

Women in India constitute nearly half of the population. They contribute 75% to the development of our society as compared to men who only 25%. According to the census 2011, nearly 98 million women in India have agriculture jobs, but around 66.1 million of them are depended on others’ farms as agriculture labours. They are engaged largely in cotton, tea, oil seeds and vegetable production. It is also worth mentioning that from the basic level of work concerning farm related activities to unskilled farm jobs like sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and post harvesting activities like winnowing, processing, storage etc. women are engaged right from the start.

Woman’s contribution to the fisheries sector is 22% according to the FAO. Food security, horticulture, sericulture, livestock production and collection of non- timber forest are some of the allied sectors in which they are involved. They are also involved in other allied sectors which include cattle management, milk and poultry farming, and fodder collection. At the same time, women’s domestic activities include cooking, child rearing water collection from the nearby and far-off places, fuel wood gathering and the overall upkeep of household. Ironically, women face disparities in terms of compensation, their share in properties and in representation in local bodies. Much of their contribution in the food production system as food producers and providers has not received effective recognition. This affects their lives and familial conditions in terms of poor health of children and low educational attainments.

Abstract

One of the major distinctive agriculture extension concepts is the Intensive Agricultural Development Village concept or Village Adoption System, where in the Extension Guides who are working at taluk level select a suitable village and disseminate the need based and innovative technologies released by the University. In this connection Extension Education Unit of University of Agricultural Sciences at Mangalore has adopted Irvathur and Renjala villages of Karkala taluk in Udupi district and several educational activities like Field Trials, Result Demonstration, FLD, Block Demonstration and Integrated Farming System Demonstrations were carried out. Training programmes were conducted on Vermiculture, Dairy farming, Paddy cultivation, Cashew demonstration, IPM on Areca nut, Coconut etc., Besides establishing Milk Producer’s Co-operative Societies in the villages, the key programme observed in the village was Vermiculture. To start with, Vermiculture was tried with one farm woman with 100 worms.

Introduction

Conservation tillage is a model of sustainable agriculture as it leads to profitable food production while protecting and even restoring natural resources. Conservation agriculture benefits farmers because it reduces production costs and increases yields, but it also has positive impacts on the whole society: enhancement of food security thanks to a better soil fertility, improvement of water quality, reduction of erosion and mitigation of climate change by increasing carbon sequestration. Conservation agriculture (CA) systems are also less sensitive to extreme climatic events and therefore contribute to the adaption of climate change and the resilience of agricultural systems. Hence, CA becomes a fundamental element of sustainable production intensification, combining high production with the provision of environmental security.

CA is based on healthy functioning of the whole agro-ecosystem with a maximum attention and focus on the soil. The soil is the entry point and it has to be considered not only as simple physical support to roots and plants, but as a living entity with its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The focus of CA embraces not only the nutrient contents of the soil but also its biological and structural status, which are determinants of sustained productivity.

The paradigm of CA is that an undisturbed soil has the opportunity to develop and produce healthier plants. Soil life can develop in a stable habitat in quantity and quality better than on tilled soils, the structural integrity of soil is maintained, so continuous vertical macro-pores are not destroyed and remain as drainage channels for rainwater into the soils. Seeding under conditions of minimum soil disturbance is achieved by direct seeding through the mulch cover without tillage.

INTRODUCTION
Hitching and detaching implements from a tractor is a crucial aspect of tractor operation, whether in agricultural, industrial, or construction work. This process involves attaching various implements, such as plows, harrows, or trailers, to the tractor’s hitch system, ensuring proper functionality during operation, and safely detaching them once the task is completed. Mastering the correct procedures for hitching and detaching is vital for safety, operational efficiency, and preserving the tractor and implement lifespan.
The tractor hitch system plays an essential role in connecting the prime mover (tractor) to the implement, creating a cohesive working unit. Both the tractor and the implement rely on each other to perform, much like the two wheels of a cart.
A “hitch” is defined as a single articulated point or a combination of points and links that allow the tractor to exert tractive effort in the form of pushing or pulling to counteract the draft force of the implement. The hitch point, whether virtual or real, represents the specific location on the tractor through which the “line of push” must pass to ensure effective operation. Proper understanding of this system ensures smooth, safe, and efficient work.
HITCHING IMPLEMENTS TO THE TRACTOR
Hitching implements to a tractor is an essential process, and the method can vary depending on the type of implement being used. The most common method involves using two hydraulic arms and a third high point to attach and level the implement. The hydraulic arms serve as the main tie-down, allowing the implement to be raised or lowered, while the third point is connected through a double-nut bar, which can adjust the length of the tie-down. For larger tractors or implements, this third point can also be hydraulic for easier adjustment. An alternative coupling method is the cup and pin system, commonly used for trailers, balers, or tanks, where a pin is driven through the tractor’s cup and

Abstract

The upsurge in global population rates has triggered a significant escalation in food demand across the world. This is accompanied by urbanisation and a pressing need for sustainable agriculture. In this context vertical cultivation of plants as well as breeding of livestock on vertically inclined surfaces, such as in skyscrapers and other high-rise buildings in urban regions has gained prominence. The dynamics of urban agriculture is captured through the case study of Urbagrow Aquaponics, an urban, aquaponic, soil-free, food garden based in Kolkata. The garden exhibits an assortment of aquaponic systems for growing a variety of vegetables as well as the tilapia and catfish. The systems make use of less water, require less work in man-hours and can grow vegetables in greater density than a traditional soil based food growing endeavour. A feasibility study has been conducted to explore the potential of scaling such a venture across myriad other high-rise buildings across Indian cities.

The major challenge of the present time in agriculture is implementing sustainable development and meeting the food needs of increasing population simultaneously. Agricultural extension always remains an integral part of National Agricultural Policy. At present, agricultural extension has a crucial role to play in the context of growing demands of agricultural production in a sustainable manner. In this situation extension’s traditional task of transferring and disseminating appropriate technologies and agronomic practices would not be sufficient. There is need to view extension for sustainable development in an institutional strengthening context, both in functional and structural.

Agriculture plays a key role in the overall economic and social well being of the country. Though the share of Agriculture in both GDP and employment has declined overtime, Agriculture still forms the backbone and occupies a pride of place :

1. Agriculture contributes 24 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product. GDP was declined from 39 per cent in 1983 to 25 per cent during 1999-2000 and now it 17.32 per cent.
2. Provides livelihood support for more than half of the population in the country. The sector provides employment to 56.7 per cent of the India’s work force.
3. Agriculture has been the source of raw material for industries. Majority of the industries depending on agriculture for their raw materials. Ex: Textile (Cotton, Jute), Sugar (Sugarcane, Sugar beet), Small & medium scale industries like soaps, dyes, medicines, vitamins, preservation of fruits and vegetables, dhal milling, rice husking, Jaggery making, oil crushing, handlooms etc.
4. It provides large part of market for industrial goods viz., seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, implements, machines like pump sets, trucks, tractors, power tillers, sprayers etc.
5. Support roadways, railways, airways and shipways for transport of inputs & produce.

1.1. Definition

Alteration in one or more of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the continuous irritation due to presence or absence of some factor or agent.

A plant is said to be diseased when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).

Agriculture shapes the foundation of Indian economy and despite the fact that there has been vast industrialization in most 60 years; horticulture still occupies a place of significance. In India, approximately 20-25% of the horticulture produce goes waste due to improper post harvest operations which reduces the growers share in the present marketing arrangements. The grower is getting hardly 25-35 paisa of a consumer rupee. The Value addition activities where the fruits and vegetables are processed, that fetches higher remunerative prices of the produce. Such opportunities are presently not available in rural areas but could be created through selective mechanization of agriculture and appropriate post harvest management and value addition to the harvested biomass in the production catchments.The agricultural produce involves operations like cleaning, grading, drying, storage, milling, packaging, transport, marketing and utilization. At the end of each operation, value is added to the product. The lowest and the highest monetary values of a food commodity are, respectively, when it is in raw and fresh form and when it is in processed and ready to consume/eat form. Post harvest and food processing technology are commodity and location specific. It prevent avoidable post harvest losses and adding value to the fresh agro-produces. It also creates opportunities for employment and income generation. Integration of production agriculture with on-farm primary processing is needed to have higher and sustainable production, productivity and better quality end products for domestic and export markets. It would help in reducing rural- urban disparity and ensuring household food and nutritional security for all at an affordable cost. The technology is available and a wide range of tools, machines and equipment are used in post-production of agriculture. The globalization of trade may compel many agro processing industries to rely on an imported technology at a high cost and the advantage of such technology may be availed by a few who have an exclusive business interest. Majority of agriculture-based enterprises will continue to depend upon indigenous technology and, therefore, R&D through public support has to be strengthened to become globally competitive and serve small-scale food processing sector of the country.

Abstract
Urban farming, encompassing practices like rooftop gardening, vertical farming, hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics, involves cultivating, processing, and distributing food in urban areas. With global urbanization projected to reach 60% by 2030, urban farming addresses challenges like rural youth migration, farmland fragmentation, and declining agricultural engagement (currently 49% of India’s workforce). It offers sustainable solutions by producing fresh, pesticide-free food, reducing transportation needs, and combating urban heat island effects. Techniques like hydroponics and aeroponics enable high-yield, year-round crop production in controlled environments, minimizing resource use and environmental impact. Despite high initial costs and skill requirements, urban farming creates employment, enhances food security, and supports urban environmental management, making it a viable alternative to conventional farming in India’s rapidly growing cities.
Keywords: Urban Farming, Vertical Farming, Hydroponics, Aeroponics, Aquaponics, Sustainable Agriculture, Food Security, Urbanization, Environmental Management, Agri-preneurship

Introduction

Malnutrition remains a pervasive global challenge, affecting millions of individuals across the world, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Despite significant advancements in agriculture and food production, a large segment of the population still lacks access to essential nutrients, leading to severe health consequences and perpetuating cycles of poverty and underdevelopment (Müller and Krawinkel, 2005). Malnutrition, defined as the inadequate intake of essential nutrients required for optimal health and development, encompasses both undernutrition and over-nutrition (WHO, 2023). While undernutrition, characterized by deficiencies in energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals, remains a significant concern, over nutrition, manifesting as obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases, is also on the rise, particularly in urban settings (Wells et al., 2020). The consequences of malnutrition are far-reaching, impacting physical growth, cognitive development, immune function, and overall well-being, with long term implications for productivity, economic prosperity, and societal stability (Saunders and Smith, 2010).

Rice, a staple food for more than half of the world’s population, plays a central role in global food security and nutrition. However, conventional rice varieties often lack sufficient levels of key nutrients, such as iron, zinc, vitamin A, and certain amino acids, leaving populations reliant on rice-based diets vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies and associated health risks (Peña-Rosas and Mithra, 2019). Iron deficiency anaemia, zinc deficiency, and vitamin A deficiency, are among the most prevalent forms of malnutrition worldwide, particularly affecting women and children in resource-constrained settings where rice consumption is high (Dipti et al., 2012)

Introduction

Environmental Assessment is taken up in this exercise as a rapid assessment technique for determining the current status of the environment and identifying impact of critical activities on environmental parameters. EIA is a relatively new planning and decision-making tool first enshrined in the United States in the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. It is a formal study process used to predict the environmental consequences of any development project. EIA thus ensures that the potential problems are foreseen and addressed at an early stage in project planning and design. Creation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system is vital to conform socio-economic development projects to environmental safety and thereby ensure sustainable economic development. In view of the fact that development is an ever-growing process, its impact on the environment is also ever increasing, leading to rapid deterioration in environmental conditions. As such Environmental Assessment provides a rational approach to sustainable development.

It also enables us in carrying out Environmental Cost-Benefit Analysis of projects at an initial stage. It is thus a precursor to detailed analysis of environmental impacts, which are taken up only if a need for the same is established.

Introduction

Evolution of agriculture in India has an ancient tradition of farming since beginning of human civilization. It has been referred in several ancient scripts including Vedic literature and many other ancient scriptures. Therefore, the study consists methods of cultivation, cropping pattern and status of agriculture sector in economy and in human life is essential for strengthen the agriculture sector during recent period. The agricultural sector in pre-independence India was very prone to breakdown and highly unstable. In other words, there was not stable production rate for various crops. The main reason for this was improper infrastructure for perennial irrigation, non-judicious water use, imbalance use fertilizers and manures, uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall throughout the year.

Importance of the farmers

Farmers, who put their labour in crop cultivation, grow crops in the land, supply food to the people generation to generation, most unprivileged and unorganized sector of their communities who used to sale labour. In ancient period, workforces were the actual owner of the land and their produce. Gradually, the farmers became paid workforce in the production system.

In the Sanskrit literature described “agriculture is a divine skill taught by sages to farmers for sustenance of life” and shows the high regard for farmers in society. The farmer was the Annadata that stands for the food provider. Farmers raised fodder for animals. Farmer planted and maintained the orchard of blessed trees after that to the village, maintained pasture land, grew herbs and medicinal plants for supply to the village physician, and fragrant flowers for worship at the temple. Farmers nurtured cattle, which gave milk and carried burdens for the community. Farmers, no doubt were the source of raw materials for all artisans and ever increasing population of the country. But farmers are often neglected, exploited, cheated and deprived from their own legitimate cash out. Farmers’ rights were slowly whittled down at first by foreign invasions, later by changes in the land ownership.

Synopsis

Food safety has become increasingly important with globalization due to various factors such as increased volume and diversity of trade in foods, greater public demand for health protection, changing hazards e.g., resistant microbes, more sophisticated methods for detection of hazards, changes in production and consumption pattern, etc. Food safety contributes significantly to food security as unsafe and poor quality food leads to illnesses as well as food wastage. This leads to a strong need to emphasize not only on availability of food but also ensure that the same is safe.

Objectives
• To understand the critical role of language and communication skills in engineering.
• To explore how communication impacts the effectiveness and efficiency of engineering work.
• To examine the types of communication skills necessary for engineers
• To highlight the significance of these skills in teamwork, leadership, and project management.
• To discuss the challenges engineers face in communication and how to overcome them.
• To encourage students to develop and enhance their communication skills for better academic and professional outcomes.
Introduction
Language and communication skills are integral to the engineering profession, often determining the success or failure of projects. Engineers are required not only to excel in their technical expertise but also to effectively convey their ideas, collaborate with diverse teams, and manage complex projects. This necessitates a high level of proficiency in both language and communication skills.

The quest for drugs from the sea has yielded a remarkable di versity of natural products mostly from invertebrates such as sponges, tunicates, bryozoans etc. These molecules are either in late stages of clinical trials or have already entered the market. There has been an increased emphasis on marine microorganisms as sources of bioactive compounds over the past decade. Marine bacteria alone constitute 10% of the total living biomass carbon of the Earth’s biosphere and they have unique metabolic and physiological capabilities to ensure their survival in diverse habitats. In the marine environment, some microorganisms associate with living and non-living surfaces and the competition amongst these microbes for space and nutrients leads to the production of bioactive secondary metabolites.

It is an established fact that there is no further scope for horizontal expansion of area under plough, as the per capita land is decreasing every year due to unabated increase in human population. Hence, the future need of food has to be met through vertical expansion i.e. more intensification of agriculture. Nearly 40 million tonnes of nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers will have to be utilized to feed upon an estimated population of 1.5 billion by 2050 AD (Sakai, 2001). However, presently the crop productivity especially rice and wheat has stagnated not only in India but in other South Asian countries also (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009).