eChapters

Introduction

In a world grappling with the effects of unchecked waste generation, the pursuit of sustainable waste management solutions stands as a paramount challenge (Smith, 2020). In India, agriculture has evolved in its own way, it has sustained livelihood of millions and had transformed from being a food deficit country to a food exported. There were certain accelerated efforts taken in implementation of advanced resources and technology which transformed India to a self- sufficient country. However this irrational application of synthetic inputs has come with a cost,which resulted in generation of substantial amount of waste. Waste can be any residual substance which has lost its value to the original user after a certain period of its utilization(Gupta, 2019). Agricultural waste are the materials that are generated during or after farming activities which either have no use in the original process of production or may have been spoiled or left unused in the right time in certain cases. These waste that are generated during farming can be in solid,semisolid or liquid forms depending on the nature of farming activities. If these agri-wastes are left without proper treatment, they may have certain types of impact on the environment,for instance the pesticide residues may impact the grazing animal health and when the fertilizers volatize and leach causing an ill-effect on the aquatic ecosystem (Yadav, 2019). Certain Agri experts had opinion that these farm residues can be recognized as “resources out of place” instead of byproduct. The holistic management of farm resources with appropriate techniques can help in reutilization of the farm wastes in secondary production sectors thus minimizing resource utilization and intensifying work efficiency.

Introduction
The Directorate of Extension Education, came into existence during 1967 under Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology. This directorate is engaged with various projects viz: University Extension Block Programme, Distance Education, Digital Extension, Information wing, Gender resource center, Educational Museum besides managing 31 KVKs in 28 districts of Odisha except Cuttack and Khordha district in which University Extension Block Programme and Farmers FIRST program is in operational. This directorate adopted several innovative extension approaches which made the OUAT KVKs unique in operational modalities and effective in delivering for the development of farming community in Odisha, some of the innovative approaches are: Development of KVK Action Plan, CoE on FPOs, R-E Linkage and Krushi Samrudhi helpline.
Development Process of Action Plan
Krishi Vigyan Kendras work as a knowledge resource center in agriculture and allied field for the district (Singh et al., 2012) where in, production and supply of critical technological products, both tangible and intangible is the major component other than having scientifically maintained demonstration units, crop cafeteria etc. Development of complete feasible action plan of KVKs requires sincere efforts in identifying the real problems on one hand and sourcing the frontline technologies on the other. The logical fitment of suitable technological options for testing, in addressing situation specific problems are also an important activity requiring our understanding of the major farming systems in the AES, micro-farming situations of different crops & commodities and our scientific orientation. For this OUAT adopts a uniform action planning process since last few years which involves different activities.
1. Identifying the problems
2. Prioritizing the problems
3. Analyzing the problems and finding root cause(s) of the prioritized problems.
4. Sourcing alternative technologies and listing possible solutions nearer to hit the root cause and address the problems.
5. Taking into consideration the follow up activities require to be undertaken for previous year OFTs and FLDs
6. Planning interventions including those for other extension activities, production of critical inputs etc.
7. Consolidation of interventions and finalization of action plan with respect to OFT, FLD, Capacity building, other extension activities or combination of these.

Introduction

Agricultural residues encompass the byproducts that arise from the cultivation and processing of unprocessed agricultural commodities, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. These residues are the leftover outputs that do not function as main products and may contain substances that have potential benefits for human use. However, their economic value is lower than the cost incurred for their collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial purposes. The composition of agricultural wastes varies depending on the specific agricultural activities and systems utilized, and they can exist in various forms, including liquids, slurries, or solids. Agro waste, which is another term for agricultural waste, encompasses a range of materials such as animal waste (including manure and animal carcasses), waste from food processing (where only 20% of maize is preserved and the remaining 80% is discarded), crop waste (including corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, and discarded or imperfect fruits and vegetables), as well as hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (such as pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides). Although there is a scarcity of estimates regarding agricultural waste generation, it is widely recognized that they make a significant contribution to the overall waste volume in developed countries. The proliferation of agricultural production has inevitably caused a surge in the volumes of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues, and by-products from agro-industries. If developing countries persist in intensifying their agricultural systems, a substantial increase in global agricultural waste is foreseen. It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced yearly (Agamuthu, 2009). In any agricultural setting, the accumulation of organic wastes can constitute a significant portion, reaching up to 80 percent, of the overall solid waste generated. Specifically, the production of manure can contribute up to 5.27 kg per day for every 1000 kg of live weight, considering the wet weight basis.

Introduction 
The agriculture scenario has evolved considerably over the years. In the present context, consumers need diverse, safe and nutritious food which calls for a major reorganisation of the agricultural value chains to support transformation from the traditional production-oriented supply chains to demand-based approaches. Trade liberalization has further intensified competition by exposing farmers to both domestic and international markets, compelling them to meet elevated standards in terms of product quality and pricing. Therefore, the primary focus should be on enhancing technical expertise, managerial capabilities and access to timely information to enable smallholder farmers not only to strengthen their livelihoods but also enhance their marketing skills amid the fast-evolving global economic landscape. Access to true information is equally essential for addressing growing challenges related to natural resource degradation and climate change. Extension in Indian context, play a vital role in bridging the knowledge gap between research institutions and farmers by providing a range of advisory amenities and facilitate expertise application, transmission and management in the farmer’s fields. Perhaps, agricultural extension is the only service at the ground-level that can provide essential knowledge, guidance, information as well as assistance to the farmers and the stakeholders. There has been extensive range of transformation and inventiveness in agricultural extension services in India; however, the exposure and access to information which were disseminated to marginal and underprivileged farmers are uneven and patchy. Likewise, in real situation a huge gap existed between the technology developed/released and the technology disseminated/adopted. A study by NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation), 2014, highlighted that the almost 59 per cent of the farm families refrained from any assistance from either government or private extension services. In the country, 40.6 per cent households received extension assistance while, only 11 per cent of the services came from physical government machineries. At present hardly onethird of the technology developed at the research organizations has reached the farming community and the statistics of adoption/application of such technology at field level is even less than that. Practical application of many of our recommended agricultural technologies in the field is very much difficult either because of the complex nature of the technology or inputs so prescribed are not readily available in nearby areas. Moreover, most of the extension machineries tend to work in isolation from each other. The production-oriented strategy which was the sole focus of earlier extension services, needs to be expanded to market-led strategy to deal with the novel

Introduction
Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University (KVAFSU),
Bidar started in the year 2005 exclusively for the development of education and learning; conduct of research and extension education and transfer of rural oriented technologies in the areas of Veterinary, Animal, Dairy and Fisheries Sciences in Karnataka. The logo of the University is inscribed with the slogan “Farmers Friendly and Rural Oriented”, which emphasizes the importance given to betterment of farming community. The mission of Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University (KVAFSU), Bidar, is to strive hard and provide leadership in teaching, research and extension education services related to Veterinary and Animal sciences, Dairy sciences, Fisheries and other allied sciences. The University endeavor is to keep pace with new frontiers of science and contemporary developments to be socially and technically relevant. In this context, KVAFSU is strongly committed in absorbing newer paradigms and using them to develop excellent human resource, innovative technologies and their dissemination so as to serve the livestock and fishery farming community of the state and the country. Various extension educational activities are undertaken by the university at various levels, viz., Extension Education, Extension Research, Extension Work and Extension Service. Collaborative activities are being planned and implemented in association with various stakeholders like Farmers, Farmers’ organizations, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Karnataka Milk Federation, etc. Besides conducting routine extension activities like trainings, demonstrations, animal health camps, field trips, field tours, campaigns, livestock shows etc., KVAFSU has come out with some innovative approaches in extension education. Which are presented in this book chapter. Extension activities are undertaken mainly under two categories, i.e. university / college activities and collaborative / sponsored activities.
I. Innovative Extension Approaches Under University / College Activities Organization of Radio Series for Farming Community Radio remains an effective medium for disseminating veterinary knowledge, especially in rural areas. KVAFSU collaborates with radio stations to
• Broadcast expert talks on Veterinary and Animal Husbandry topics. More than 150 expert talks from Veterinary college Hassan, entitled as Gokulavani series, Kukkutavani series, Hainnu Honnu series I, II, II are broadcasted through AIR Hassan. Presently, Hainnu Honnu series IV is being executed with another 50 series of expert talks and skits as well.

Introduction

In India the economy is based on rural and agrarian and decline with land holding area poses a serious challenge to the sustainability and profitability of farming. In view of the decline in per capita availability of land from 0.5 ha in 1950-51 to 0.15 ha by the turn of the century and a projected further decline to less than 0.1 ha by 2020, it is imperative to develop strategies and innovate new agricultural technologies that enable adequate employment and income generation, especially for small and marginal farmers who constitute more than 80% of the farming community. The crop and cropping system based perspective of research needs to make way for farming systems based research conducted in a holistic manner for the sound management of available resources by small farmers (Jha, 2003). Under the gradual shrinking of land holdings, it is necessary to integrate land based enterprises like fishery, poultry, duckery, apiary, field and horticultural crops, etc. within the bio-physical and socio-economic environment of the farmers to make farming more profitable and dependable (Behera et al., 2004). No single farm enterprise is likely to be able to sustain the small and marginal farmers without resorting to integrated farming systems (IFS) for the generation of adequate income and gainful employment year-round (Mahapatra, 1992; 1994). Farming systems approach, therefore, is a valuable approach to address the problems of sustainable economic growth for the farming communities in India.

Introduction

The managemment of pests and diseases in agriculture is challenging for farmers. Antibiotics and chemical pesticides are commonly used in traditional methods, which can be harmful to human health, the environment, and the long-term sustainability of agricultural practices. This article explores innovative approaches to pest and disease management in agriculture that are changing the game (Lykogianni et al., 2021). Techniques for controlling diseases and pests in field crops are necessary to keep agricultural systems healthy and productive. Farmers and agricultural professionals can prevent, monitor, and control pests and diseases that can significantly affect crop yields in a variety of ways. These administrators are practicing strategies to find a balance between restricting the use of chemical inputs, promoting sustainable agriculture, and maintaining financial viability.

Principle of Integrated Pests and Disease Management (IPDM)

• Suppression and Prevention: The elimination and prevention of pests are the first tenets of IPM. IPM aims to prevent a single pest from dominating a cropping system or causing damage, not eliminate all pests (Barzman et al., 2015). Three distinct sub-principles are combined in this principle: crop rotation and management, ecology, and a multi-pest strategy in combination The papers in this Special Issue discuss each of these guiding principles. A genuine illustration of the mix of strategies and multi-pest approaches is crafted by Poggi et al. (2021), who discussed ways to control wireworms in field crops. A risk assessment based on the production context (such as crop, climate, soil characteristics, and landscape) and monitoring of adult and/or larval populations should be the first steps in any new agro-ecological strategy.

Introduction 
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad is one of the premier agriculture Universities in India has made its remarkable journey in the field of Teaching/ Research / Extension since its inception, UAS, Dharwad has got six Krishi Vigyan Kendras sponsored by Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Which have adopted various outreach methodologies for the farming community. Apart from conventional methods of technology transfer i.e., technologies in pipeline (farm trails) conducted in farmers fields for their acceptance, front line demonstration, on farm testing, PRA, diagnostic field visits etc. KVKs have employed various techniques making use of ICT which have proved to be effective in enhancing the productivity of farms (Medhi et al., 2017), reaching farmers quickly and effectively. The present paper is a compilation of innovative methodologies adopted by KVKs under UAS Dharwad during last five years. As it is mandate for all the KVKs to prepare action plan before the onset of every year during March-April, vigorous exercises are done by KVKs to prioritize the problems faced by farmers in the particular district. These problems are planned to tackle the location specific technologies developed in that zone. If the technologies under FLD banner are not available in particular technologies developed elsewhere in NARS are borrowed and tested for both its sustainability under that agro-ecological system. During this process of prioritizing the problems, implementation and monitoring, KVK adopt various methods given as discussed below.

Objectives
• To explore creative and interactive techniques for effective vocabulary expansion.
• To enhance understanding and retention of new words through contextbased learning.
• To encourage the use of digital tools and apps for engaging vocabulary building.
• To promote collaborative learning strategies for vocabulary enhancement
• To develop critical thinking by applying new vocabulary in diverse contexts.
Contextual Learning
One of the most effective ways to learn new words is through contextual learning. This involves understanding words through the context in which they are used, rather than learning definitions in isolation.
Steps to Implement Contextual Learning
• Reading Widely: Expose yourself to a variety of texts (books, articles, blogs) to encounter new words in different contexts.
• Word Journals: Maintain a journal of new words with examples of how they are used in sentences.
• Context Clues: When encountering an unfamiliar word, try to deduce its meaning based on the surrounding words and context before looking it up.

Abstract

Access to reliable and affordable irrigation is one of the most important enablers to increase agricultural productivity and income for farmers. An innovative Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump model and its utility in providing affordable irrigation has been discussed in this paper. The proposed Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump can increase output on an average 8%-12% more than fixed panel and is much cheaper than automated tracking. This paper deliberates upon the technical features that make the Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump an advantage over its nearest competitor, the diesel pump. Government of India has already introduced various subsidy-based solar pump schemes and most of them are not popular because of low discharge issue. The low discharge issue can be solved by this proposed optimum tilt-based Manual Tracking Solar Pump, whose sustainable market penetration is suggested through various strategies in the paper, supported by case studies. The proposed entrepreneurship model not only opens a new era of agricultural business but also helps to reduce the GHG emissions.

Abstract

Today more than 70% of energy is generated by coal-based thermal power plants. Indian coal contains about 40% ash, these power plants generate enormous amounts of fly ash, which is dumped in the nearby areas. This creates not only economy constraints but also imposes serious environmental problems, which are the potential hazards to the ecosystem. However, recent attempts in India and abroad are being made for biological association of fly ash e.g. in soil improvement, in wasteland management and also as a source of essential plant nutrients for nutrient deficient soil in terrestrial eco-system and agro-ecosystem. Fly ash has been found to have manifold advantages in agriculture especially in modification of soil texture and bulk density, in optimization of soil pH, in improvement of water holding capacity of soil, in the improvement of yield as a micronutrient supplement to soil and in creation of conducive condition for better plant growth. In this article utilization of fly ash along with VAM fungi and other microbes especially nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilizers in removing the constraints of salt affected soils has been discussed.

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the Sun and the Earth’s surface, and radiate it back to Earth’s atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect. Gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) occur in traces but play crucial roles in controlling the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere. The natural as well as anthropogenic activities have major impacts on the GHGs emissions that include continuously increasing concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere. The heat-trapping properties of these above mentioned GHGs are well established. Different GHGs have different warming potential (radiative forcing) on the global climate system due to their different radiative properties and lifetimes in the atmosphere. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs modify the energy equilibrium of the climate system which leads to subsequent climate change. They affect the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface. Globally agriculture is estimated to account for 10%–20% of anthropogenic GHG emissions (Smith and Olesen 2010). Share of contribution of these gases towards global warming are different such as CH₄ 20-25%, CO₂ 40-50% and N₂O 5-10%; with present pace of increment every year 0.41, 0.42 and 0.25%, respectively IPCC, 2019.

Introduction

Technical innovation is a process by which new or improved technologies are developed and brought to widespread use (Ambuj Sagar, 2013). Technical innovations are interlinked by research, development, demonstration and deployment which involves a range of organizations and personals with institutional arrangements underpinning the growth and advancement of different kinds of technologies. In the area of water productivity, technical innovations has helped expand water supplies through improved exploration and recovery techniques, increased water use efficiency, improved water availability and reduced environmental impact of water and its usage.

Soil is a dynamic natural body of the uppermost layer of earth’s crust produced by the transformation of mineral and organic substances on the earth’ s surface under the influence of environmental factors over a long period. It is the most basic of all natural resources upon which all living forms on the terrestrial ecosystem directly and indirectly depends. However, soil resources are finite, nonrenewable, fragile and heterogeneous in space and time. As a component of pedosphere, it occurs as interface between the lithosphere and atmosphere and strongly interacts with biosphere and hydrosphere (Figure 1 & 2).

The crop production has been found to make wide use of chemicals with hundreds of newly imported molecules. Unnecessary and excessive use of inorganic chemicals have led to an upsurge in the ecosystem and imbalance of nature. Natural enemies and bees get destroyed with chemical pesticides. Other side effects include resurgence of target pests and outbreak of secondary pests. Moreover, the residues of the pesticides in food products and environment have caused grave health issues. The contamination of pesticides into the fruits causes a quality decrease of the fruits, which is widely reported. The best available solution for sustainable agriculture can be the non-chemical organic/ natural farming that does not permit the usage of inorganic and synthetic chemicals for crop cultivation. Natural farming is the ecology-based production management system promoting and It provides biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. The basic principles of organic/natural farming are materials and practices that enhance the ecological balance of natural systems that integrate parts of the farming system into the ecosystem. The first purpose of natural farming is to improve the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals, and people, that is termed as ‘one health concept’.
Natural farming is a system in which laws of nature are applied to agricultural practices. It has an advantage of natural biodiversity on every area of farmed resources; it also fosters the intricacy of living organisms, plant and animal alike, which would form each specific ecosystem to grow in harmony with food crops. Insects are indeed very mobile and well adapted to farm production systems as well as pest control tactics. Organic/natural farms focus on management, not eradication, of these insects. Thus, success in organic/natural farms depends on learning the biological, ecological, and behavioural information of the insects. The biological information as to what the insect needs to survive can be used to determine if insect pests can be deprived of some vital resource. Ecological information can be used to inform how the insect interacts with the environment and other species. shape an environment resistant to pests.

Insect pests are responsible for 10.8% of crop losses on an average. Their management is crucial in agriculture to protect crops and boost output. In organic farming systems, preventative measures are taken more often than curative. Understanding the impacts that the local climate, topography, soils, and all other facets of the production system are expected to have on crop performance and potential host/pest complexes is essential for developing successful organic crop protection techniques. Crop rotation, soil health management, host plant resistance, field location, monitoring pests and their natural enemies, vegetation management to enhance natural enemies and exert direct effects on pest populations, releases of bio-control agents and use of approved insecticides of biological origin are highlighted in organic farming in order to reduce pest damage. The safe and environmentally friendly methods for managing the pests in organic farming are discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

The fundamental tenet of organic pest management is the use of environmentally sound measures as outlined by worldwide and national organic agricultural standards. The emphasis of organic farming's pest management strategies is on the employment of numerous and diverse strategies integrated into the cropping system, which ultimately lowers the pest incidence. Pest and disease options mainly dependent on preventive measures in organic farming rather than curative and maintaining healthy ecosystems is priority. The farmer should have a better grasp of the pests and beneficial organisms that exist in the specific crop ecology when practising organic farming. The farmers must follow a monitoring mechanism in which they may able to act on the pest before they reach devastating levels.

Onion production is constrained by insect pests and diseases that damage seedlings, foliage, roots and bulbs and reduce both yield and market quality. Important pests include onion thrips, leaf miners, cutworms, armyworms and onion maggots. Major diseases include damping-off, basal rot, downy mildew, purple blotch, white rot and pink-root rot. Some insects also transmit damaging viral diseases. This chapter presents integrated cultural, biological, botanical, behavioural and chemical strategies for managing these threats. Crop rotation, sanitation, healthy planting material, proper spacing, resistant varieties, traps, barrier crops, beneficial microorganisms, natural enemies and need-based pesticides are discussed as components of sustainable crop protection and resistance management.

Insecticides are one of the key control measures to combat the insect pests for sustainable agricultural production in the world. Synthetic insecticides have been only strategy to control the resurgent and resistant insect population in of high value crops not only in India but also in the world. The advent of synthetic insecticides in the mid-20th century made the control of insect and other arthropod pests easy and much more effective, and such chemicals remain essential in modern agriculture despite their environmental issues.

As we draw the threads of “Droughts through the Ages” together, we are left with a profound understanding of the cyclical yet evolving nature of drought. From the earliest whispers of human history to the stark realities of our modern world, the absence of life-sustaining water has cast a long shadow, shaping civilizations, sparking innovation, and at times, triggering societal upheaval. This book has journeyed through millennia, examining the historical accounts, scientific understandings, and societal responses to these arid interludes. Yet, the true value of this historical lens lies not merely in recounting the past, but in illuminating a path towards a more resilient future. • The preceding chapters have underscored several crucial insights. We have witnessed the devastating impacts of prolonged dry spells on ancient empires, the ingenuity displayed in developing early irrigation systems, and the growing scientific understanding of the complex interplay between atmospheric conditions, land surface processes, and human activities in driving