eChapters

Worldwide, agriculture contributes a lot for mankind by providing food and feed for human beings and livestock, respectively. The countries where agriculture plays a vital role, it has enough importance in the economy of the country as well as gross domestic product (GDP).

Weeds are a serious menace and these reduce the quality and yield of crops substantially. Chemical as well as mechanical methods are being used to control the weeds. The weeding was traditionally done by “khurpa” up to mid 60s. This tool requires its operation in a sitting posture, which reduces the work rate. The use of long handled tools like “kasola” became popular because these allowed their operation in a standing posture, which increases the mobility and thus the work rate. Weeder is a mechanical device to remove the weeds (unwanted plants) from the cultivated crop. A wide variety of weeders are used in the countries, which may be categorized in three groups viz. manual weeder, animal or tractor drawn weeder and power weeder or self-propelled rotary weeder (Singh, 2007; Pandey et al., 1997; Pandey and Ganesan, 2005).

In previous sections we discussed about the validity and estimation of validity. Now the question is whether the reliable and valid measuring instrument is sufficient condition to ensure the reliable and valid results in actual experiments? What if the measuring instruments are perfectly reliable and valid but the experiment is conducted in less controlled conditions? Can we expect accurate predictions under such conditions? The answer is No.

Introduction

International agricultural setup has appeared as it now taking all out consideration and agricultural heritage, crop voyage, crop classification and its significances. International cooperation has contended a big role in developing and strengthening the research system in Asian country. several developed countries like USA, UK, USSR, Canada, Australia, Japan, many European countries; Charitable establishments, etc.; altruist and Ford Foundations; varied International Agencies like FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, World Bank, etc.; and also the International Agricultural Research Centres below the consultatory cluster on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System have contributed extensively to the explanation for agricultural RESEARCH in Asian country. Spectacular achievements in increasing the food production have raised the country’s image significantly, and also the bilateral arrangements have modified from the erstwhile donor-donee standing to relationship of equal partnership in research. The reciprocity and mutuality of interests with the less developed and in addition because the technologically advanced countries square measure the essence of international co-operation. The government has approved ICAR, motor-assisted by the board of directors of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), to enter into bilateral cooperative agreements with many countries and agencies. The mode of collaboration ordinarily follows the pattern of: (a) exchange of germ-plasm of plant and animal origin; (b) exchange of scientific and technical information; (c) visits of scientists and experts; (d) coaching of scientists; and (e) infrastructure development.

Abstract

Describes the genesis, organization and Internet representation of International Patent Classification (IPC). Provides the outline of seventh edition and useful URLs related to it.

Keywords: International Patent Classification, Patent Classification, Classification, Internet representation

Introduction

The International Patent Classification, commonly known as the IPC, is based on an international multi-lateral treaty administered by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). This treaty is called the Strasbourg Agreement concerning the IPC, which was concluded in 1971 and came into force on October 7, 1975. The Agreement aimed to overcome the difficulties caused by using diverse national patent classification system. The common classification system defined by the Agreement is applied to patent and utility model documents. The Agreement is open to States party to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Web technology revolutionised information technology and GIS of no exception. Analysis of maps available in internet through remote personal computer is called as web GIS. The term web is GIS synonymous with the term internet GIS. Most of the software vendors in the field of GIS have developed their GIS compatible to internet. The advantage of internet GIS is no need to own a GIS software in the personal computer. Maps available in a web site can be analysed for GIS functions as one could do with GIS in standalone personal computer. Applications of web GIS is not limited. Most of the governmental agencies, business people and others put their data in their server and the data could be analysed spatially for the users requirement. Internet mapping is simple, cost effective and reach vast audience.

Internet GIS is useful in field like civil engineering, government organisations, forestry, environment, goescience, utility planning etc.

The integration of Internet of Things technologies with artificial intelligence is creating increasingly connected and data-driven agricultural systems. This chapter examines how IoT and AI can support smart farming through continuous data collection, analysis and decision-making. It discusses technological infrastructure for advanced agriculture and improvements in field operations enabled by connected sensors and intelligent systems. Applications in precision farming, including orchard and vineyard management, are considered alongside emerging technologies and high-throughput phenotyping. IoT devices can provide information about environmental and crop conditions, while AI methods transform these data into useful management insights. The chapter concludes by examining future directions and research challenges associated with integrated smart farming systems.

Internet of Things (IoT) is networking of physical objects, devices, machines, systems etc to interconnect each other for exchanging data through standard internet protocols. The IoT is also termed as Machine-to-Machine (M-to-M) communication. The term ‘Things’ in IoT includes objects embedded with sensors, actuators, mobile phones, routers, hubs, computers, wearable’s and smart devices etc.

Introduction

Famous French postmodern philosopher Jean Baudrillard commented on information once. “Information can tell us everything. It has all the answers. But they are answers to questions we have not asked, and which doubtless don’t even arise.” This seemingly paradox observation fits contemporary Internet age perfectly. Internet is a vast repository of information of all kinds and is bursting on its seams. The seeker needs to search with monumental grit and determination to have a full handle on the range of information available for any particular search. A search string for GIS returns more than 1185000 results, in a mere 0.26 seconds. Recommending a comprehensive resource list is not possible as new material gets continually added by way of additions and updates. However for a beginner the list given below will be handy. The flip side is GIS has innumerable resources and a broad range of content. Software vendors, organizations, individuals, universities and companies have provided a wealth of information. The readers are exhorted to make use of the materials to improve their understanding of the subject.

11.1 Concept of Internet

The internet is not a computer network. It is a network of networks, linking computer to computers. Each runs software to provide access and view information.

In other words, internet is the connection of two or more networks so that a computer on one network can communicate with a computer on another network. The communication between two computers takes place such that the user does not have to worry about the technology used by the networks. The router, also called gateway, acts as an interface between two networks. The internet covers the entire globe and includes large, international networks as well as many smaller, local area networks (LANs). A user can access data, graphics, sound, software, text and people through a variety of services and tools for communication and data exchange. To get, provide and compile information, internet is the cheapest and fastest medium. Some of the popular tools and services available for communication and data exchange are as follows:

Interpretation of Drainage Patterns Through Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs can provide a useful tool for interpreting the drainage patterns of a landscape. Drainage patterns are formed by the natural movement of water across the land and the way in which it flows from high to low areas, creating channels and streams that eventually converge into larger rivers and bodies of water. Different types of drainage patterns can be identified through aerial photographs, which can help to understand the underlying geology and topography of the landscape.

Here are some of the different drainage patterns that can be identified through aerial photographs:

1. Dendritic pattern

This pattern resembles the branches of a tree and is the most common type of drainage pattern. It occurs in areas where the underlying rock or soil is uniform and has no preferred direction of erosion. The streams converge into larger rivers, which may flow in a particular direction.

Rock

A rock is a solid, naturally occurring substance composed of minerals or mineraloids. It is typically formed through geological processes, such as cooling and solidification of molten lava or magma, or by the deposition and compaction of sediment over time. Rocks are classified into three main types based on their origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten lava or magma. Examples include granite, basalt, and obsidian.

Sedimentary rocks: Formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediment, such as sand, mud, or organic matter, over long periods. Examples include sandstone, limestone, and shale.

Metamorphic rocks: Formed from the transformation of existing rocks under high temperature and pressure conditions. They undergo changes in mineral composition, texture, and structure. Examples include marble, slate, and gneiss.

Rocks serve as the building blocks of the Earth's crust and are an essential part of the geological processes that shape the planet. They can provide valuable information about Earth's history, including the formation of mountains, the movement of continents, and the presence of ancient life forms. Rocks are also used in various practical applications, such as construction, road building, and the production of minerals and resources.

Structural landforms are landforms that are created due to the underlying geological structures of the earth's crust. These structures can include folds, faults, and other features that have been formed due to the tectonic forces that have shaped the earth's surface over millions of years.

Examples of structural landforms include mountain ranges, plateaus, and rift valleys. Mountain ranges are formed due to the upliftment of the earth's crust along a fault line or due to the folding of the earth's crust. Plateaus are flat-topped landforms that are formed due to the upliftment of a large area of the earth's crust. Rift valleys are formed due to the stretching and pulling apart of the earth's crust along a fault line.

Denudational landforms, on the other hand, are landforms that are created due to the process of erosion and weathering. These landforms are formed due to the gradual wearing down of the earth's surface by natural forces such as wind, water, and ice.

As already discussed in above chapter there are various physical, geographical and environmental constraints that are associated with the hill agriculture, thus the scope for` agricultural policies based on modern input-intensive agriculture is inhibited in the hilly areas resulting in the majority of the hill communities to either live on subsistence agriculture or immigrating to other parts of the country for employment. The policies that might give successful results for any other state in India situated in the plains, may not prove to be fruitful in this hilly state. As the livelihood of the weaker sections in the hill areas is absolutely dependent on natural resources, their devastation will make the process of inclusive growth unsustainable in the long run. For sustainable agriculture it is necessary that agriculture of hill can be b understood in the right way and it should include all the necessary interventions on those activities in which farmers are dependent to make a livelihood. 

Interview method: It is a two way interactive (either face-to-face or through multimedia technology), method of data collection wherein the researchers elicit required response from the respondent by presenting stimulus in the form of series of questions pertinent to it.

Interview schedule: It is a data collection tool consisting of properly worded, sequentially arranged questions, tests relevant to objective of research.

I. Introduction

India has been deeply concerned about the food security on the one hand and health and welfare of its people on the other. Agriculture has been traditionally the backbone of Indian economic progress and development. The role of agriculture including animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries accounts for some 33 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and about 65 per cent of the work force depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for its livelihood and support. Along with the food grain, the production of vegetables and fruits has also been increased to meet the nutritional security of the people.

India is the second most populated nation with a geographical land area of about 329 million hectares (Table 1). The gross cropped area is 185.5 million hectares with a net sown area of about 142.5 million hectares. Currently area under assured irrigation is estimated to be 50.10 million hectares which is 35.15 percent of the cultivated area which has progressively risen to this level due to the expansion of major and medium irrigation projects including harnessing of ground water reserves excluding tanks (Shantaram, 1998). A substantial part of the net cultivated area which works out to be about 92.3 million hectares is rainfed depending on the vagaries of rains. The forest area (68.07 million hectares) only 22.3 per cent which is much less than the desired level because the national forest policy demands it at least 66 per cent in hills and 33 per cent in plains. However, it is not feasible to divert land for forest plantation due to obvious population pressure on agricultural land. However, the advantages of forest can be harnessed by growing trees on marginal lands alongwith crops through agroforestory practices for restoring ecological balance.

1.    Introduction    3
2.    History and Scope of Microbiology    4
    2.1.    Controversy over the origin of microorganisms, 5
    2.2.    Germ theory of fermentation, 6
    2.3.    Germ theory of disease, 6
    2.4.    Development of laboratory techniques and pure cultures, 7
    2.5.    Discovery of immunization, 7
    2.6.    Discovery of protection against infection, 8
    2.7.    Discovery of chemotherapeutic agents, 8
    2.8.    Microorganisms as geochemical agents, 9

Biotechnology plays a very important role in agriculture as a result of its ability to modify microorganisms, plants, animals, and agricultural processes. The umbrella of microbial technology in agriculture covers numerous scientific activities, ranging from production of biofertilizers to that of microbial pesticides; from biological nitrogen fixation to lignocellulose degradation; from production of biomass and biofuels to transgenic plants. Terrestrial ecosystem contains an important dynamic living matrix termed soil, which is critical for agricultural production and food security. Soil forms the medium for growth and maintenance of a variety of plant species. Soil is considered a store house of microbial activity, though the space occupied by living microorganisms is estimated to be less than 5% of total space.

The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practices that rely on rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing countries. In India, about 52% of total net sown area comes under rainfed lands. Rainfed crops account for 48 per cent area under food crops and 68 per cent under non-food crops. India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the world in terms of both extent and value of produce. Due to population pressure on agricultural lands, the poverty is concentrated in rainfed regions. The climate in India’s rainfed regions is characterized by complex climatic deficiencies, manifested as water scarcity for rainfed crop production. The climate is largely semi-arid and dry sub-humid with a short (occasionally intense) wet season followed by long dry season. Rainfall is highly unreliable, both in time and space, with strong risks of dry spells at critical growth stages even during good rainfall years. The fluctuations are due to numerous factors affecting the monsoonal climate including the atmospheric circulation and strong links to El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean.

Rainfed areas in India are highly diverse, ranging from resource rich areas to resource-constrained areas. Some of the resource rich areas are highly productive and have experienced widespread adoption of technology. However, most of the areas are resource constrained and dry areas. In the resource constrained and dry areas, the farming is a survival mechanism rather than a growth oriented activity. Rainfed agriculture is practiced under a wide variety of soil type, agro-climatic and rainfall conditions ranging from 400 mm to 1600 mm per annum. Rainfed Crops are prone to breaks in the monsoon during the crop growth due to water stress. This water stress may be due to variability of rainfall, delay in sowing, diversity in crop management practice and variability of the soil type. The prolonged breaks can result in partial or complete failure of the crops.

Although after independence, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, especially of rice and wheat resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to “Green Revolution”. This Green Revolution came to fore during the late “Nineteen Hundred and Sixty”. In fact, during the era of “Green Revolution”, introduction of high yielding varieties of rice and wheat crops were grown which responded to more use of fertilizers, pesticides as well as water.

There is no doubt that “Green Revolution” made the country-India, self- sufficient in food grains production, particularly of rice and wheat. As a matter of fact, the “Green Revolution” created a buffer stock at times exceeding to 60 million tonnes, which made the nation or the country very proud (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). However, continuous use of chemical fertilizers as well as inorganic pesticides and totally neglect of organic manures and botanical pesticides prepared from various plant species like Neem (Azadirachta indica) and Drek (Melia azedarach) for controlling of insects came totally to stand still. So very soon, the deleterious or ill effects of the “Green Revolution” the so called the chemical-based farming or “Industrial agriculture,” came to fore, which briefly stand discussed below