eChapters

Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients for plant growth. It is an integral part of the cellular activities of the living organisms. It has a defined role in plant metabolism such as cell division, development, photosynthesis, break down of sugar, nutrient transport within the plant, transfer of genetic characteristics from one generation to another and regulation of metabolic pathways. Phosphorus is a frequently limiting macronutrient next only to nitrogen for plant growth and makes up about 0.2% of plant dry weight. The plants obtain their P requirement from the soil pool. It occurs in soil as inorganic phosphates, produced by weathering of parent rock or as organic phosphate derived from decayed plant, animal, or microorganisms.

5.1 Introduction

According to Croxton and Cowden, “Either for one’s own use or for the use of other, the data must be presented in some suitable form”.

Now – a – days everybody uses tables in one form or another, and accountants use them quite often. The work become tedious, especially if you had to do for 12 columns for the 12 months of the year, and more so if there were some modification to be done after having set up the entire table. The Americans have a special name for such tables- spreadsheet which makes life easy.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak two young Americans in 1976 AD developed the first desktop computer – The Apple which was not user friendly and needed programming for useful work. Dan Bricklin, Robert Frankston and Dan Fylstra proposed a program to turn the computer’s memory into a giant virtual spreadsheet where necessary corrections and modifications could be done fairly, quickly and easily and marketed the program in 1978 under the trade name VisiCalc. VisiCalc was soon succeeded by Sugercal and other computer programs which were more user friendly. The Lotus 1-2-3 designed and developed by Larry Kaplan put further step, which set the standard for many applications under the IBM, Now a days Microsoft under the leadership of Bill Gates had been working on the sidelines perfecting graphical user Interface (GUI) packages for the PC range of computers that would widen its reach. Now Microsoft office program Suite the integrated word processing, spreadsheet, presentation and data base management.

The spreadsheet package in Microsoft office is called Excel – our basic software, or program for this manual.

1. Introduction
The amount of water present in the soil is called as soil moisture. The soil moisture availability is an important topic to study as it affects plant growth, agricultural outputs and the water resource management as well. The amount of soil moisture present in a place and in a time depends on the factors like soil type, Land use, vegetation cover of the place and evaporation taking place in that area at that time. The amount of water hold by the pores in the soil determines the soil moisture. This water holding by the soil depends on various factors like temperature, moisture levels, organic matters and the soil living organisms (Rasheed et al., 2022). Essential Climate variable (ECV) is very important to our planet which can be recognized by GCOS (Global Climate Observing System). Important sustainable development issues say drought, flood management, food security, ecological health and water resources are being impacted by the soil moisture. Soil moisture changes have also a role in evapotranspiration, rainfall, and the runoff distribution and intensities. (Zeng et al., 2023).
Soil moisture content (SMC) have a huge impact in shaping the water, carbon cycles of earth and energy balance in different scales of time and space. It is an important factor for the effective water management due to its influence on the precipitation, surface temperature and evaporation which will be affecting the processes say river runoff, vegetation health, and irrigation practices. The highcost traditional methods make to overlook for SMC in environmental modelling (Edokossi et al., 2020). The atmospheric and the land surface process are blinked by the key facto of SMC as said by Robinson et al. (2008). For gaining the knowledge on water, carbon cycles and energy as well as for studying extreme weather conditions, understanding soil moisture is very much needed. (Vereecken et al., 2014; Li et al., 2007; Seneviratne et al., 2010; Robock & Li, 2006).
Due to the soil moisture’s impact on the factors say when to plant, when to blossom and when to harvest the crop, soil moisture should be considered as the important factor as it is in improving the water resources and boost the agricultural output. Remote sensing methods like microwave remote sensing plays vital role in creating maps depicting the distribution of soil moisture spatially and temporally high resolutions. These maps help in effective crop planning, in-season drought assessment, irrigation and soil managements. The traditional methods like TDR probe, Soil moisture utilizing neutron probe and gravimetric methods are inefficient in studying the soil moisture with high spatial and temporal resolutions due to factors like Variations in terrain, soil type and land use pattern. We can overcome these and enhance our ability to map soil moisture in different scales through the recent advancements of microwave remote sensing (active and passive microwave remote sensing) which are having advantages like clear, accurate and timely measurements of soil moisture content.
Irrigation water sources are controlled through the soil moisture studies by executing the sustainable water management plans and by monitoring high yields despite the environmental changes, increasing water demands and climate changes. To predict the agricultural output, irrigation management, drought early warning, creating vegetation indices, soil moisture study with high temporal and spatial resolutions will be a key factor as it improves the crop stress reduction also which are the major driving forces of yield reduction (Doraiswamy et al., 2004). So, the soil moisture has a direct impact on the crop yield which are studied using variable rate technology say selective application of pesticides which can improve farmers financially as well as environmentally (Harris et al.,1964).

Millets or nutri-cereals are the ancient grains which have now regained the interest of the scientific community as the super grains. These exhibit excellent nutritional and technobiofunctional profile apart from exhibiting tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The millets are gluten free and show high in vitro protein digestibility, resistant starch content, antioxidant and prebiotic potential providing health benefits for all age groups ranging from paediatrics to geriatrics. The presence of certain anti-nutritional factors can lower the bioavailability of proteins and minerals. Processing enhances the nutritional and functional properties by increasing the antioxidant content and lowering the antinutrients. Different value added products can be prepared by incorporating millets thereby enhancing the nutritional and functional attributes. It is necessary to bring millets into regular consumption by the food industry in the interest of nutritionally and health-conscious consumer.

1. Introduction Millets, also known as “smart crops” or “miracle grains,” are a group of small-seeded, hardy cereal crops that have been cultivated for millennia. They are used as a staple food in many of the countries particularly located in arid and semi-arid regions. Millets have been overshadowed for quite a long time by commonly consumed cereals like wheat, rice, and maize. Nevertheless, they have made a remarkable comeback in our cuisines owing to the growing awareness and recognition of the numerous benefits at individual and environmental level. These small, drought-resistant grains play a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing global issues like food security, malnutrition and climate change.

Millets are a type of minor cereals found in the Poaceae family. Millets are often described as “Nutri-Cereals” since they contain more nutrients than commonly produced main cereals. They are an important part of human’s diet in the world. These are foods with a high nutritional content, gluten-free and have nutraceutical qualities. The adequate amount of protein (essential amino acid), micronutrients and phytochemicals are found in millets. The phytochemicals found in millet grains enhance human health by lowering cholesterol and phytates in the body. Millets are full of antioxidants, minerals including dietary fibre, iron, calcium and magnesium that are vital for battling a variety of diseases. These are beneficial to include in our daily diet because the grain is healthy and nutritious. They decrease blood pressure, prevent cancer and lessen the chance of tumour growth. The rich nutrient content in millet has many health advantages such as cancer, obesity, lower risk of cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal issues, migraines and asthma. People utilise millet-based products to fight a variety of nutritional deficiencies and diseases.

Millets which are also known as “Shree Anna” are a type of grass with small seeds that belongs to the Poaceae family and are widely grown throughout the world. Millets have high levels of proteins, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants that why they are known to be climate-change-resilient crops. Proteins are essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize and are used as a nitrogen source during embryo development following germination. Millets are high in dietary fibre and are important staple crop in many parts of the world. They are versatile grains that can be used to make a variety of food products, including millet flour. Millets are good for cardiac health, weight management, antioxidant activity, and may have anti-cancerous properties. They are nutrient- dense, provide sustained energy, and contain antioxidants such as polyphenols and flavonoids. Millets are considered safe and have a variety of health benefits. Surprisingly, millets perform major non-millet cereals in terms of nutrition. They are particularly high in dietary fibres, minerals, antioxidants, phytochemicals, and polyphenols, all of which have broad-spectrum positive effects on human health.

Introduction

Millet is a very important cereal grain that many people around the world eat. In fact, over a third of the world’s population consumes millet. It’s the sixth most produced cereal crop globally. Some common types of millet include Jowar (Sorghum), Sama (Little millet), Ragi (Finger millet), Korra (Foxtail millet), and Variga (Proso millet). Among these, Bajra and Sama have more fat, while Ragi has the least. Millet has been cultivated for thousands of years and is used in many parts of the world. In the past, even the Romans and Gauls enjoyed millet-based porridges. Today, China, India, Greece, Egypt, and various African countries are the major producers of millet. In rural areas, some types of millet, like Finger millet and Sorghum, are eaten by people, while others are primarily used as animal feed. These millets have packed with several beneficial nutrients and play a crucial role in traditional diets in many regions. Compared to commonly used rice and wheat, millet is three to five times more nutritious. While wheat and rice mainly provide food security, millet offers not only food security but also health benefits and livelihood opportunities. It can help manage health issues like diabetes and high cholesterol.

In India, Karnataka is the top producer of millets, accounting for over 58% of global production. Despite its nutritional and health benefits, many people in India are not aware of the advantages of consuming millet. (Upadhyaya et al., 2007). Millets are fantastic crops when it comes to pest management. Traditionally grown millets don’t require pesticides and the land used for millet cultivation remains largely pest-free. Some millets, like foxtail millet, not only resist pests themselves but also serve as natural protectors against pests in storage conditions for other crops like green gram. This means there’s no need for fumigants to keep them safe. It has a treasure trove of micronutrients, including vitamins and beta-carotene, which are now seen as essential as pharmaceutical pills. In the present day, millets are exceptionally superior and serve as a solution to the widespread issues of malnutrition and obesity affecting a significant portion of the Indian population (Singh KP et al., 2012). Millets are rich in essential fatty acids, including linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids, which are present in their free form. They also contain compounds like monogalactosyl, diacylglycerols, digalactosyl diacylglycerols, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylcholine in bound forms. Although other fatty acids like arachidic acid, behenic acid and erucic acid are found in millets, they are in trace amounts. Millet oil can be a valuable source of linoleic acid and tocopherols. Additionally, millets are gluten-free and have an alkaline effect in the body. They contain essential B vitamins such as niacin, folacin, riboflavin, and thiamine, as well as phosphorus. These nutrients play a crucial role in energy synthesis within the body.

Introduction

The milling machine is one of the maximum flexible conventional system equipment with a huge variety of steel-reducing capabilities. Many complex operations along with indexing, multi-milling and saddle milling, etc. may be completed on a milling system. A milling device is a tool that cuts steel at the same time as the workpiece is fed closer to a rotating multi-element milling cutter. This machine can also contain one or greater knives at a time. That is why a milling device has extensive utility in production work. It’s better for other machines when it comes to precision and a better surface finish. It is also designed to perform a variety of jobs in the tool room.

Summary

Fertilizers are materials when applied replenish lost soil nutrients on farmer’s field. Without the use of fertilizers farmers would find it extremely difficult to increase their production to meet the ever-growing mouths. The purpose of this session is to discuss what a fertilizer is, and the different terminologies used in fertilizer technology.

The living organisms in the terrestrial ecosystem have unique characteristics of taking up the substances from atmosphere and soil for the synthesis of their own cellular component or as a source of energy. The supply and absorption of chemical compounds required for the growth and metabolism of the organisms may be defined as nutrition and the compounds required by them are called nutrients. The process by which the nutrients are converted to cellular material is known as the metabolism. Out of 118 chemical elements so far detected in the modern periodic table, 92 elements from hydrogen to uranium are naturally occurring, a large portion (more than sixty) of such have been detected in the plant tissues. But, the elements which take part in the nutritional requirement and metabolic processes of the plant are said to be essential elements, others which do not participate in such processes are considered non-essential.

Introduction
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that possesses distinct physical qualities and a specific chemical makeup. An ore is a mineral or group of minerals that can be used to extract a useful substance, such a metal, and use that substance to makeother useful commodities. In  the crust of the earth, minerals are created over millions of years. These nonrenewable resources are crucial to the advancement of modern civilization. India’s mineral resources are confined to a small number of places and are unevenly distributed. The Chotta Nagpur Plateau region contains almost 90% of our mineral riches. Mining is the procedure used to extract minerals from the earth.
Mining Activities Move Through Four Phases
Mining Procedure
Mining activities move through four phases:
a) Prospecting: Mineral exploration
b) Exploration: Determining the deposit is dimensions, form, location, and economic worth.
c) Development: The process of making the deposit accessible so that minerals can be taken out of it.
d) Exploitation: Mining the minerals and taking them out.

Mineral

A mineral is defined as “a natural substance, usually inorganic, having a definite chemical composition and commonly a definite molecular arrangement which is usually expressed in geometric form”.

Introduction

The inevitability of detrimental effects of climate change is looming large not only on the sustenance of agriculture, but also on the survival and progress of mankind. Estimates by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reveal that the atmospheric concentration of GHG would exceed 680 parts per million (ppm) CO₂-equivalents by 2050, which is about 50% higher than baseline year 2010 (OECD, 2012). Additionally, global temperature is predicted to increase by 2°C within this period, resulting in meansea level rise and erraticweather conditions. Consequently, the catastrophic effects on food consumption pattern by the end of 2050 will create malnutrition in at least 290 million people. Agricultural crops provide 63% of the human protein, and additionally supply almost 100% protein to the livestock, which are the second major sources of protein in human diet. Altogether, the detrimental effect of climate change on agriculture would make about 300 million additional people malnourished. Add to that a 2.7 billion increase in human population by 2050, coupled with shortage of water availability that would affect 3.9 billion people by 2050, and one can easily perceive the grim scenario for our kind in not so distant future.

Potted Plants

In urban areas, scarcity of space compels the dwellers to take up gardening on rooftop, terrace, balcony or small space adjacent to the house. Usually, plants are grown in pots or containers for rooftop gardening. Big size pots with diameter of 30 cm or more are required for growing rose plant. It is necessary to prefer tall pots to obtain appropriate growth of the plant having deeper root system. Now-a-days, pots of different materials such as clay, cement and plastic are used for growing potted plants. Usually, clay pots are better than plastic pots as clay is slow in transfer of heat thereby maintaining the root zone cooler. Of course, plastic pots are lighter and suitable for use on the rooftop as those put less load on the building structure. Light coloured plastic is preferred to dark colour as those generate less heat. Although heavier, cemented pots are more durable than earthen or plastic pots. The pots should have adequate drainage facility with holes in the bottom. Besides, a layer of gravel or medium-size stone of one-inch thickness are to be placed at the bottom of the container to facilitate drainage.

Mites have been known as pests of agricultural and horticultural crops since long but now they rank as very serious pests and vectors of many plant diseases. The application and extensive use of pesticides, fertilizer and improved cultural methods have probably favoured increase of the population. Mites as crop pests are confined to certain group of the other acari. Near about 20,000 species have been described of the total mite fauna on a world basis. From India, 660 species of phytophagous mites have been described and nearly 30 species are reported as potential pests (Gupta 1987). Phytophagous mite belongs to family - Tetranychidae, Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae, Eriophyidae and Tuckerellidae. These mites cause direct damage like loss of chlorophyll, stunting of growth, defoliation, reduction in size and quality of fruits, appearance of various types of plant deformities etc. and all these severely affect the yield. Besides causing direct damages, few phytophagous mites inject toxic substances in to their hosts, which cause increased localized growth and disruption of tissue (Jeppson et al. 1975), and many species belonging to family – Eriophyidae are known to act as vectors of plant viruses. The dust entangled in the web formed by tetranychid mites on leaves prevent the sunlight reaching the leaf surface and as result photosynthesis is impaired, the leaves turn pale, yellow and fall down. This affects the vitality of the plant.