eChapters

Abstract

In recent years, significant studies have been carried out on Plant growth promoting rizhobacteria (PGPR) to replace the usage of pesticides and fertilizers to improve the plant health. Plant growth promoting rizhobacteria (PGPR) is a group of rhizosphere bacteria, which are symbionts to plants and influence their growth by providing plant growth promoting substances. Different bacterial genera act as plant growth promoting rizhobacteria (PGPR): Pseudomonas sp., Rhizobium sp., Azotobacter sp., Bacillus sp. Pseudomonads are gram negative rods, aerobic, fluorescent, motile and are able to produce siderophores which influence plant growth. There are multiple potential traits offered to the plants by plant growth promoting (PGP) Pseudomonas sp. are (1) Biocontrol agent against plant pathogens (2) Induced systemic resistance, which is a defense mechanisms in plants preceding to pathogenic attack (3) Influence of plant growth promoting (PGP) Pseudomonas sp.on agricultural crops (4) Siderophores, which are low molecular, high affinity iron chelating compounds which benefits the plants to acquire iron molecules (5) Nitrogen fixation (6) Phytoremediation of heavy metals (7) Solubilization of inorganic phosphates (8) Secretion of plant hormones (9) Bacteriocins(10) Antifungal factors (11) Antibiosis traits and (12) Endophytic PGP Pseudomonas sp.

Introduction

The term multipurpose trees (MPT) refers to all woody perennials that are grown to provide more than one significant function (shelter shade, land sustainability) of the land use system they implement. More emphasis is given to trees which are indigenous in nature and have the capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. All trees are said to be multipurpose. The term “multipurpose” as applied to trees for agroforestry refers to their use for more than one service or production function in an agroforestry system (Burley and Wood, 1991).

Multipurpose trees species (MPT) are grown to provide more than one significant crop of function or form. These may include fuel wood, fiber, fodder, flower, fruit, fertilizer (6F) timber, industrial purpose, nitrogen f ixing, soil conservation, soil protection and rehabilitation, shade and nurse trees, medicine, windbreak, shelterbelts, live fences, aesthetic or recreational purpose, shown in Table 16.1.

Trees are an integral and indispensable constituents of our natural surroundings. The trees keep the environment clean, make the soil healthy and provide food, fibre and shelter to mankind and wild animals. Trees help in stabilizing the soil, a vital natural resource, prevention of soil and water erosion, control run off water in the catchment areas, acts as a shelter belt against wind erosion in arid zone, act as a wind breaker to protect the coastal region during storm and cyclone besides contributing substantially to economic development. The National Commission on Agriculture stress the need for afforestation of about 40 million ha of land presently lying barren because of salinity, sodicity, waterloggings, ravines, coastal sandy areas, stony and gravelly lands, high altitude and slopping lands. Several agencies in various parts of the country are engaged in afforestation of these degraded lands.

Introduction
Agroforestry, social forestry, community forestry, village forestry, and farm forestry are all practices that involve tree cultivation primarily outside designated forest reserves. Agroforestry, in particular, is a land-use approach that integrates trees with agricultural crops, shrubs, pastures, or livestock. This combination of trees and shrubs within land management systems can be structured in a spatial arrangement or occur in a sequential manner over time. The term ‘woody perennials’ is sometimes used to describe these trees and shrubs, referring to all long-lived plants that persist for more than a year, including bamboos and palms. In agroforestry systems, trees may not always be deliberately planted; natural regeneration may be encouraged by protecting emerging seedlings, or mature trees may be intentionally retained in fields and pastures. These woody perennials are often categorized as “multipurpose trees” (MPTs) or “multipurpose trees and shrubs” (MPTS) due to their diverse uses. While most trees can be considered multipurpose, this distinction highlights the varied benefits trees offer in agroforestry systems, as opposed to singlepurpose timber plantations focused solely on wood production.
Conversely, tree cultivation in designated forest areas is often directed toward industrial needs, commonly referred to as industrial forestry. The promotion of MPTs in agroforestry holds great promise for addressing land-use challenges and improving livelihoods by enhancing environmental sustainability and economic opportunities for local communities. Agroforestry research has now advanced to a stage where suitable tree-crop combinations, their management practices, and genetically improved planting materials can be recommended for specific conditions. Furthermore, continuous advancements in research by international and national agroforestry organizations are contributing to the benefit of farmers. The availability of information on multipurpose tree species (MPTs) for many species has facilitated the adoption of agroforestry as a viable land-use system. However, for certain MPTs, a lack of fundamental data on growth rates, breeding patterns, resilience to environmental stress,

Abstract

A study was conducted to evaluate the nature and magnitude of genetic divergence and also to identify divergent parents in one hundred eight sorghum germplasm collected from different agro eco-geographical areas in India. Mahalanobis D² statistics revealed considerable genetic diversity among the 108 genotypes of sorghum. The genotypes grouped into 11 clusters.

Multivariate analysis is essentially the statistical process of simultaneously analyzing multiple independent variables with multiple dependent (outcome or criterion) variables using matrix algebra. During the last two or three decades, multivariate statistical analysis has become increasingly popular. The theory has made great progress, and with the rapid advances in computer technology, routine applications of multivariate statistical methods are implemented in several statistical software packages. The traditional approach to the teaching of multivariate statistical analysis, as exemplified by Anderson (1958), relies heavily on advanced matrix mathematics. On the other hand, Hury and Riedwyl (1988) suggest that it is possible to understand most of the basic ideas underlying multivariate statistical analysis without a mastery of such mathematics, provided that these are conveyed with the help of real data sets. In this chapter we propose a non-mathematical data-driven approach for teaching multivariate statistical methods to students. Despite this, we are mindful of the need for students to know some basic linear algebra and univariate statistical concepts. Such basic knowledge provides students with the foundation necessary for the application of the appropriate multivariate statistical procedures and for the interpretation of results.

Introduction

Time series data is data that has been collected in a specific pattern with time stamps. (Nayak and Ghosh, 2013). This type of time-oriented data is collected at regular intervals, such as hourly, daily, monthly, or weekly. Time series data can be used to make accurate predictions in a variety of fields and domains, such as foreign currency rates, stock market trends, energy consumption estimates, and climate change. Machine learning and data mining techniques can be used to uncover hidden patterns in historical data and forecast future trends (Aftab et al. 2018a, 2018b, Mishra et al. 2017).

Weather forecasting based on historical data is a complex but very beneficial task that comes with several issues that must be resolved to achieve optimal results (Wu and Chau, 2013). Weather data includes attributes or features such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed. Machine learning techniques are used to forecast future weather conditions by identifying hidden patterns and relationships in historical weather data (Aftab et al. 2018b). Prediction of precipitation is an important part of the weather forecasting process. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques is regarded as a critical component in farmer services and policy formulation. Farmers require weather forecasting to plan their activities following the predicted weather. Accurate and timely rainfall prediction in farming, in particular, can be extremely beneficial in planning and security measures for operations, agricultural tasks, water reservoir systems, and construction and transportation activities (Chau and Wu, 2010). Forecasting rainfall will become increasingly important in the future.

Mungbean (Vigna radiata L Wilczek) is considered to be originated from Vigna sublobata. It is also known as green gram, an important short duration grain legume with wide adaptability, low input requirements, and the ability to improve soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Mungbean is well suited to a large number of cropping system and constitutes an important source of cereal based diets. Mungbean is used for different purpose. The major portion is utilized in making dal, curries, soup, sweets and snacks. The food values of mungbean lie in its high and easily digestible protein. Mungbean is grown throughout Asia, Australia, West Indies, South and North America, Tropical and subtropical Africa. However, India alone accounts for 65% of the world acreage and 54% of the world production. It is widely cultivated in India in different seasons; however, the maximum area is under kharif cultivation. Extremely plastic morphology, phenology and short maturity duration (60 days) makes the crop ideal as a catch crop, inter crop or relay cropping. It is grown as sole relay crop in rice fallows during rabi season in A.P., Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Orissa and sole catch crop during spring/summer season in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan (Table 1).

1.1. Mushroom

Fruiting body of fungus appears above ground and contains spores.

Fungi are network of fine microscopic threads collectively known as mycelium.

Fungi are the part of the plant kingdom and don’t contain chlorophyll and root system.

Mushroom comes under sub division Basidiomycotina, order – Agaricales.

Refers to entire operation of the induction and isolation of mutants.

Term mutation was introduced by Hugo de vries in 1900 in connection with sudden heritable changes observed by him in Oenothera.

1. Introduction
Bioremediation is an environmentally friendly process that uses numerousdifferent microbes (e.g., fungi & bacteria), green plants, or combinations
of them to weaken and detoxify dangerous pollutants in a sequential orsuccessional manner. The pollutant composites are converted by biologicalorganisms through a response that takes place as part of their metabolicprocesses. They convert poisonous pollutants into carbon dioxide (CO2) andwater (H2O), microbial biomass, and other products that are less poisonous.The organic wastes are biologically degraded under controlled, harmless, andsafe condition into inoffensive products below the admissible limits establishedby supervisory authorities.

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is the most prevalent and important mutualistic association in plant kingdom. ‘Mycorrhiza’- the word means fungus - root, this association was reported by A.B.Frank in the year 1885. Nearly 95% of plant species form this mycorrhizal association. This serves as critical linkage between plant roots and soil and characterized by the movement of plant produced carbon to fungus and fungal acquired nutrients to plants. Through its hyphae this fungus absorbs the available P from soil and transports directly to root cortex. Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. There are seven types of mycorrhizae (Table 1). These are endo (arbuscular), ecto, ectendo, arbutoid, monotropoid, ericoid, and orchidaceous mycorrhizae. Among them, endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the most abundant and widespread

Mycorrhizae denote the symbiotic associations between plant roots and fungal mycelia. Literally it means fungal root. In 1840, Vittandini proposed that ‘tree rootlets are nourished by certain fungal mycelia which mantle them’. The first illustrations of mycorrhiza were published in the same year by Robert Hartig. However, in 1885 A.B. Frank coined the term “mykorrhizen” to the mutualistic symbiotic fungal association of roots (‘mykos’ fungus ‘rhizen’ roots). He characterized the sheath-forming fungi on tree as ‘ectotropisch’ (ectotrophic) and those without such compact sheath as ‘endotropisch’ (endotrophic). Fossil records reveal that mycorrhizae are as old as terrestrial plants.

The term ‘mycorrhizae’ was coined more than a century ago (Frank 1885) describing that the roots of most plants are colonized by fungi and transformed into fungus roots organ. Mycorrhizae result from a mutualistic symbiosis between plant roots and certain fungi. Roots of most flowering plants live in mutual symbiosis with mycorrhizae which bio-tropically colonise the root cortex and extra-metricial mycelia help the plant to obtain plant nutrients from soil (Barea, 1991).

These fungi are ubiquitous in soil and are found in the roots of many Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes and Thallophytes (Mosse et al., 1981). The mycorrhizal fungi perform the function of root hairs. The fungus takes carbohydrates from the plant and in turn supplies the plants with nutrients, hormones and protects it from root pathogens. The dependency of fungal species on host plant ranges from obligate to facultative (Brundrett, 2002; Read and Perez-Moreno, 2003). The mycorrhizal plants have greater tolerance to toxic heavy metal, nigh soil temperature, soil salinity, unfavourable soil pH and to transplantation shocks.

They play an important role in increasing plant growth and nutrients uptake (Bagyaraj, 1992, VasanthaKrishna and Bagyaraj 1993). These fungi can be used to promote biotechnologically developed plant in soil (Varma and Schuepp 1994).

11.1 Introduction

Our Country is a fast developing nation for the overall development and has proved that the country which was known for a begging bowl for food grains has turned up towards self-sufficiency and also has excess production to feed the present level of population. From about 50 MT of food grain production in 1950-51, harvest in 2010-11 reached over 241 MT, highest ever along with high production of fruits, vegetables, milk, egg and fish. This increased food production in the country has mainly been achieved through productivity gains, as the net sown area has remained static for the last four decades.

Abstract

In nature the roots of most of the plants are infected by fungi to form mycorrhizal associations, which play a central role in nutrient capture from the soil. These fungi are found in almost every terrestrial ecosystem; even in pioneer zones or very saline environments, and are reported to represent the second largest biomass component of many terrestrial ecosystems. Mycorrhizal associations are found in a broad range of habitats ranging from aquatic to deserts and alpine altitudes. In natural ecosystems mixed population of mycorrhizal fungi co-exist, with certain fungi becoming dominant in a particular patch and subsequently being replaced as environmental conditions change. Once this equilibrium is disturbed, the population dynamics is disrupted and a biomass may develop towards a few or even for one dominant fungus. Different species of mycorrhizae respond differently in response to the environmental conditions. In the present paper, all major types of mycorrhizal associations in different ecosystems are discussed.

Abstract

Sustainable landscape and forest management are of utmost concern in alleviating climate change. Fungal mutualism is one of the most significant positive biotic interactions responsible for forest structure and longevity. Coastal sand dunes imitate xeric habitats, while mangroves and river floodplains are often marshy. In spite of such extremities, mycorrhizal fungi are prominent component in coastal vegetation. Studies so far revealed that mycorrhizal association in herbaceous plant species is responsible for dune formation, stabilization and serve as potential inoculum in coastal habitats. Mycorrhizal association facilitates plant species to exploit larger volume of soil, supply nutrients (organic nitrogen, phosphorus and minerals), aggregates soil, provides tolerance to salinity stress, relieves from water stress and protects roots from pathogens. Human interference has severe impacts on plant-mycorrhizal mutualism in coastal habitats. Cultivation of exotic tree species and their uncontrolled exploitation further impoverish the habitats. Protection of native herbaceous flora, cultivation of native tree species and introduction of selected indigenous keystone species in disturbed habitats with mycorrhizal mutualism is an appropriate measure of rehabilitation.