eChapters

Construction of any building, airplane, poultry farm, dairy farm, agricultural business, even a new product are known as projects that require money and time, thus, all projects need to be finished in the least amount of time possible. All projects involve multiple activities, and all these actions need to be logically coordinated and successfully completed within the expected time frame. PERT and CPM are useful techniques for this purpose. PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique and CPM represent Critical Path Method. These techniques separate projects into various tasks and events and organize them logically in a diagram called a grid. Time estimates are obtained to conduct these different tasks and the total project time is decided based on these estimated times. With the help of these methods, the project can be completed in the given time and it also provides important information about the various activities related to the project and the project manager knows the importance of the various activities to which he pays more attention to reduce the time spent on the project.

Pre-dominant farming systems in various regions of India

The quick survey conducted as a part of characterization of existing farming systems throughout the country indicates existence of 19 pre-dominant farming systems with majority as crop + livestock (85%). Although crop + livestock system is dominating in the country, based on the per cent contribution to net income, the systems are classified as crop, horticulture, livestock, fisheries dominant systems where in dominant component contributes more than 50% of the total net returns. Accordingly, it was found that crop dominant farming systems are existing in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, NorthEast, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal while livestock dominant systems are present in Rajasthan and Parts of Gujarat. West Bengal, parts of Odisha and Assam states have the fisheries as a major source of income to the existing farming systems. The scope for promotion of horticulture (fruit) based systems exists in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of Uttar Pradesh and in Sikkim while plantation dominant systems are available in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Kerala. In selected states and locations, highly diversified systems also exists where in none of the component contributes for 50% or more to the returns. The characterization survey data of existing farming systems in different states/zones are being interpreted and brought out in the form of National Atlas on Farming Systems. Though the various farming systems exists in the country, integration of input and output within the system is either completely lacking or at partial integration. Competition exists within and outside the farm for various byproducts generated. Cow dung is the best example as dung is required for improving the fertility of soil and meeting the household fuel. Hence, synergy needs to be made by appropriate allocation for making farming as a profitable option. Sustainable farming systems should aim for long term productivity, profitability, recycling of resources and employment generation. The monetary returns under different farming systems practiced in different parts of the country are given in Fig 1. Among the various existing systems in the country, coconut +banana+ cocoa +pineapple + nutmeg (FS9) gives the higher return of Rs 1.27 lakhs/annum.

Introduction

The Indian fisheries sector is set in a unique and diverse set of resources ranging from the pristine waters of the Himalayas to the sprawling Indian Ocean. The fisheries biodiversity of the country encompasses a wide spectrum of physical and biological components that support the livelihoods of millions of people. Fisheries resources are set in different ecosystems. With growing population and the increasing demand for fish protein, the need for sustainable development of aquatic resources is now felt much more than ever before.

Fisheries and aquaculture remain important sources of food, nutrition, income and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world. Global capture and culture fish production during 2019 were 97 and 82 million tonnes, respectively with India being second largest producer of fish in the world after China. From 0.75 million tonnes in 1950-51, total fish production of India touched 12.59 million tonnes in 2018-19 with a contribution of 8.90 million tonnes (70.60%) from inland sector. The sunrise fisheries sector contributes about 0.96 % to National Gross Value Added (GVA) and 5.37% to agricultural GVA (2018-19) while engaging over 14.5 million people (2003 census) at the primary level and almost twice the number along the value chain. During 2018-19 the export of marine products that includes production from aquaculture reached 13,77,244 tonnes valued at INR 46589 crore (US $ 6.93 billion). The inland sector grew at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of nearly 6.5% between 1979 and 2018, while overall fish production witnessed 4.5% growth, which is double the growth rate of food grains production in India.

Although the efforts to develop hill agriculture were initiated in early fifties, planned development programme came to be evolved only in the late sixties. The phenomenal increase in food grains called the ‘Green revolution’ bye passed these hilly regions because of paraphernalia of constraints. Furthermore severity of soil erosion and soil degradation is much more and widespread in hill agriculture due to fragile ecosystem and its impact on plains through downstream sedimentation and flooding. Because of these constraints, traditional agriculture cannot be the lead sector for development. Thus the country faces the challenge of promoting livelihoods to minimize migration through local employment and income generation, and to enhance the quality of life of people living in villages. The positive features of these hilly areas are that they are rich in biodiversity, have enormous potential for tourism, a suitable climate for high value crops that can be harnessed for a development strategy.

In order to improve the existing system and to harvest newer opportunities in the hill agricultural system, a proper understanding of the composition of agri-horti-silvi-pastoral farming system and livestock based farming system is necessary. There is a considerable scope for development of agro-ecological zone specific farming along with horticultural interventions in the hill agriculture. At the same time there is an urgent need to give top priority to land use pattern, soil and water conservation and environmental sustainability. Agri tourism can be exploited in hill agriculture. What Hill agriculture needs is the appropriate technology, emerging markets, investment and risk cover.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of India as 50% of its work is engaged in agricultural activities enabling India self-sufficiency in food production. However, agriculture sector is facing several challenges such as reduction in arable land due to urbanization and industrialization, decrease in farm size due to family division, climate change, yield loss due to abiotic and biotic stresses like pest, disease and weed, proliferation of non-genuine/illegal agro-chemicals etc (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2019). FAO estimates that a total annual loss of 20 to 40 percent of global crop production due to pests. Each year, plant diseases cost the global economy around $220 billion, and invasive insects around US$70 billion. While in India, yield loss to crops is estimated as 26, 20, 6 and 8% by insects, plant pathogens, rodents and others, respectively with an annual loss of Rs. 2,25,000 crores annually. Traditionally, ITKs have been practiced by farmers to control pests based on three categories viz., (a) cultural practices, physical, mechanical methods and use of botanicals. Later, IPM has been implemented in various crops to curb such losses caused by biotic stresses. Although cultural, mechanical and biological control strategies are in practice, insecticide application has been the most widely used tactics to reduce such losses to achieve quick control and particularly in case of outbreaks/upsurges. In India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). First generation insecticides such as sulphur, arsenic, calcium arsenate, copper acetoarsenite, hydrogen cyanide, lead were introduced during 1950’s which are simple, persistent, usually very toxic chemicals used in large scale which harm almost everything they come into contact with. Later second generation insecticide molecules like DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids have been introduced with few advantages over first generation molecules. Subsequently, insect growth regulators (IGRs) that mimic insect growth hormones preventing natural young insect moulting which are less harmful to mammals have been introduced. Then, during past decades, newer insecticide molecules have been introduced which are target specific, relatively safe to non-target organisms and low residual activity. In terms of pesticide production and consumption, India is the fourth largest user of pesticides in the world (FAOSTAT, 2017). India is one of the lowest consumer i.e. 0.5 kg/ha (0.06 mt) of pesticides in the world as compared to China (13.06/ha), Japan (11.85 kg/ha), Brazil (4.57 kg/ha) etc. The United Nations has declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health (IYPH). The main aim is to raise global awareness on how protecting plant health can help end hunger, reduce poverty, protect the environment, and boost economic development. FAO estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. This leaves millions of people without enough food to eat and seriously damages agriculture - the primary source of income for rural poor communities. .

Introduction

India has progressed well on food production from 51 million tonnes (mt) in 1947, 286 mt in 2018-2019 owing to the largest contribution from wheat and rice (about 213 mt). But simultaneously our population has also grown to about 135 billion in 2018. Therefore, the impact of higher production is not realized in absolute terms. Indian agriculture has come a long way since independence achieving food security in major crops, declining rate of rural poverty, rise in agricultural incomes and nutrition levels have gone up. Higher production has also been recorded in sugar, cotton, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, milk, fisheries and poultry. All this has made us a proud with achieving self-sufficiency in food security. However, on the socio-economic front, the picture does not become rosy as we have a lower strength of socio-economic development indicators even among developing countries. Still the reports of under nourishment, hunger and poverty rings the bell. However, the importance of agriculture cannot be negated because it provides sustenance to mankind, food and employment to all. Considering the emerging challenges of climate change impacting agricultural productivity and increasing variability, poor investment in research, skill development of farmers, post-harvest losses etc. New strategies and innovations in agriculture, particularly on the development of climate resilient varieties with high productivity and better nutritive quality are called for, which has to be led by structural reforms and infrastructural augmentation.

Introduction

Pulses belong to the taxonomic family Fabaceae, containing over 18,000 species divided into the three sub-families Mimosoideae, Caesalpinoideae and Papilionoideae. Pulses are commonly cultivated for several decades in all over the world because of the nutritional value of their seeds. Among different pulses, soybean, chickpea, common bean, cowpea, green gram, black gram and pigeon pea contribute significantly to serve the major protein source for the diets of large numbers of people living in Asia, Africa, and South America.

Production and Productivity of Pulses in india

In India, the production of pulses has not been able to keep pace with their domestic demand, resulting in import of 4-5 million tonnes of pulses per annum, especially from the countries like Canada, Myanmar and Australia to meet its domestic requirement (Kumar et al., 2018). India is the largest producer (around 25% of global production), however it consumes 27% and imports around 14% of its pulses requirements. The yield of pulses in India is quite low at 781 kg/ha which might be due to various factors. Pulse crops does not show any significant increase in area and production during 1950-51 to 2009-10, however, significant growth in area and production has been recorded during the last five years (i.e., 2010-2011 to 2016-17), with the adoption of high yielding varieties, increased usage of agricultural inputs like fertilizers and manures etc. The pulses under irrigation are cultivated in about 37% of the area while 63% of pulses are grown under rainfed conditions.

The productivity of pulses has increased about 77% at 779 kg/ha during 2016-17 from the level of 441 kg/ha during 1950-51. It is imperative to mention that the New Agriculture Technology (NAT) introduced during mid-sixties has increased the production of food-grains from 50.82 million tonnes during 1950-51 to 275.68 million tonnes during 2016-17 with the increase in area from 97.32 million hectares to 128 million hectares. In order to achieve self- sufficiency in pulses, the projected requirement by the year 2025 is estimated at 27.5 MT and to meet this requirement, the productivity needs to be enhanced to 1000 kg/ha.

Introduction

The natural economic movement of a country goes from agrarian economy which is the primary sector to an industrial economy (secondary sector) and then only to the tertiary sector i.e., service economy. But due to various socio-economic factors, India has jumped from an agrarian economy to a service economy in the past and had a low growth in secondary sector.

Though primary sector is vital, there is a natural limit on how much can be extracted from this. The country is witnessing a peak in food grains production (285.21 million tonnes) nonetheless rupees 92,000 crores worth food grains are wasted annually (MOFPI annual report 2018-19). Hence, with an increasing population, decreasing arable land (52.6%), irrigation water resources and with present level of climate change scenario, food processing should be considered as a need to enhance the profitability and sustainability of agriculture in the country (Swaminathan and Bhavani, 2013). Thus, effective post-harvest management is one of the strategies for envisaging an evergreen revolution along with increasing yields. A well-developed food processing industry increases farm gate prices reduce wastages, ensure value addition, promote crop diversification, generate employment opportunities as well as export earnings.

It is important to reflect on the path we have traversed throughout this book. We embarked on a journey tracing the evolution of how weather and climate insights are applied to the intricate world of agriculture. From rudimentary observations to the sophisticated analyses of modern agrometeorology, we‘ve witnessed a growing understanding of the critical interplay between atmospheric conditions and crop production. We‘ve explored the groundbreaking integration of remote sensing technologies, offering an unprecedented bird‘s-eye view of agricultural landscapes, and the power of Geographic Information Systems to contextualize this data within specific spatial boundaries. The emergence of advanced data analytics, including the transformative capabilities of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, has been a recurring theme, demonstrating how vast datasets can be harnessed to extract meaningful patterns and drive predictive insights.
• This progression has culminated in the central concept of precision agrometeorological advisory services – the focus of our in-depth exploration. We‘ve examined how moving beyond generalized recommendations towards tailored guidance, customized to the unique characteristics of individual farms and fields, represents a paradigm shift in agricultural support. This precision approach, underpinned by accurate, localized data and scientifically validated models, holds the key to addressing some of the most pressing challenges faced by today‘s farmers. From navigating the increasing unpredictability of weather patterns and the growing threats posed by climate variability to optimizing the use of increasingly scarce and expensive resources like water and nutrients, precision agrometeorology offers practical and impactful solutions. It empowers farmers to make timely and informed decisions, minimizing risks, maximizing efficiency, and ultimately enhancing the productivity and sustainability of their agricultural endeavors. This empowerment is not just about boosting yields; it‘s about fostering greater economic stability, promoting environmental stewardship, and ensuring food security for a growing global population.
This final chapter, „Next Generation Agrometeorology: Empowering Farmers with Precision,“ is designed to consolidate the wealth of knowledge and insights we‘ve gathered. We will synthesize the key findings and highlight the practical implications of embracing these next-generation approaches. Beyond a simple summary, we aim to provide a clear understanding of how the principles

Abstract

Nitrogen is the most important element in terms of nutrition for plants, nitrate being the most preferred form. Nitrate not only acts as nutritional element but also as a signal to modulate metabolism and plant architecture. Nitrate sensing mostly happens in the root tip through a hitherto unknown mechanism, but its response can be demonstrated on an organism-wide scale. Functional genomic studies revealed over a thousand nitrate-responsive genes, involved not only in N and C metabolism, but also in various other physio-logical processes. Identification of nitrate response element/s common to all these genes could pave the way to unravel the mechanism of nitrate signaling, but findings in this direction have remained inconclusive so far. Several trans-acting factors have been implicated in N signaling and response, but none of these have been convincingly demonstrated to be specific to this response. Nitrate uptake, which is sometimes associated with nitrate sensing, is also highly regulated process and involves multiple transport systems like HATS, LATS and dual affinity transporters.

At the point where ammonium is produced, the reactions involved in organic nitrogen mineralization come to a halt. This most reduced form of inorganic nitrogen is the starting point for the nitrification process, which involves the biological synthesis of nitrate or nitrite from reduced nitrogen molecules. The ability of nitrifying bacteria to create nitrate, which is the primary nitrogen source ingested by higher plants, determines their relevance. Nitrate is formed in a variety of places, including soil, marine environments, manure piles, and sewage treatment, where it is the result of the final stage of turning organic nitrogen inoffensive.

The most oxidizable form of nitrogen is nitrate nitrogen (NO3 -N), which is found in minimal amounts in surface waters but can reach considerable concentrations in some aquifers. An essential plant nutrient, nitrate also contributes to eutrophication in receiving water bodies.
Principle
Nitrate reacts with phenol disulphonic acid and produces a nitro-derivative which in alkaline solution develops yellow colour due to rearrangement of its structure. The yellow colour follows Beer’s law and is proportional to the concentration of nitrate present in the sample. Ultraviolet (UV) technique measures the absorbance of nitrate at 220 nm, which is suitable for screening uncontaminated water (low in organic matter). A second measurement made at 275 nm, may be used to correct the nitrate value (because 275 nm is not absorbed by nitrate, but absorbed by other matter). The nitrate calibration curve follows Beer’s law up to 11mg NO3 -N /L.
Reagents
1. Stock nitrate solution (1ml=100 µg NO3 -N): Dry potassium nitrate (KNO3) in an oven at 105 oC for 24 h. Take 360.9 mg potassium nitrate and dissolve in distilled water and dilute to 500 ml. Preserve it with adding 1 ml of chloroform in per 500 ml stock nitrate solution. This solution will stable for at least 6 months.
2. Intermediate nitrate solution (1 ml = 10µg NO3 -N): Take 100 ml of stock nitrate solution and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water. This solution can be preserve by adding 2 ml of chloroform per 1000 ml. This Intermediate nitrate solution will stable for at least 6 months.
3. Hydrochloric acid (HCL) solution, 1N: Take 83 ml of hydrochloric acid and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water

Nitrite (NO2-) is formed in waters by oxidation of ammonia compounds (by aerobic nitrifying bacteria, e.g. Nitrosomonas) or by reduction of nitrate (by facultative anaerobic denitrifying bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas). Such oxidation and reduction may occur in wastewater treatment plants, water distribution system, and natural waters. As an intermediate stage in nitrogen cycle, it is unstable. Very high nitrite levels are usually associated with waters having unsatisfactory microbiological activity.
Principle (Colorimetric method)
When nitrite (NO2 -) as nitrous acid (HNO2) mixes with sulfanilamide in an acidic environment (pH 2-2.5), a diazonium salt is created. This salt then combines with N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NED dihydrochloride) to make a vivid pinkish red azo-dye. The amount of nitrite in the sample directly correlates with the colour that is created. At 543 nm, the colour follows Beer’s law up to 180 µg/L with a 1 cm light path. By diluting a sample, a higher nitrite concentration can be determined. Sulfanilamide + HNO2 + HCl ? Diazonium salt + H2O.
Diazonium salt + NED-dihydrochloride ? Red colouredazo dye

12.1 Introduction-Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a chemical element which has the symbol N and atomic number 7. Elemental nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.1% by volume of Earth’s atmosphere. Nitrogen is a constituent element of all living tissues and amino acids. Many industrial important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, and cyanides are made up of nitrogen.

12.1.1 History

Nitrogen (Latin nitrogenium, where nitrum (from Greek nitron) means “native soda”and genes means “forming”) is formally considered to have been discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air. That there is a fraction of air that did not support combustion is well known to the late 18th century.

Argon was discovered when it is noticed that nitrogen from air is not identical to nitrogen from chemical reactions. Compounds of nitrogen were known in the Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids is known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest industrial and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds involved uses in the form of saltpeter (sodium- or potassium nitrate), notably in gunpowder, and much later, as fertilizer, and later still, as a chemical feedstock.

There are two mini-cycles in the soil nitrogen cycle:

1. Soil-based processes such as mineralization, ammonification, nitrification, and immobilisation include the conversion of organic nitrogenous molecules to plant-useable mineral forms, and subsequently back to biomass (microbial, plant and indirectly animal biomass).
2. The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms available to the living components of the ecosystem, i.e. nitrogen fixation and the transformations within the soil, as well as the return of the fixed nitrogen to atmospheric inert forms of nitrogen through denitrification, are all soil and biosphere resident processes.

Soil microorganisms are the most important agents in the cycling or transformation of various elements (N, P, K, S, Fe etc.) in the biosphere; where the essential elements undergo cyclic alterations between the inorganic state as free elements in nature and the combined state in living organisms. Life on earth is dependent on the cycling of nutrient elements from their elemental states to inorganic compounds to organic compounds and back into their elemental states.

The microbes through the process of biochemical reactions convert / breakdown complex organic compounds into simple inorganic compounds and finally into their constituent elements. This process is known as “Mineralization”.

Mineralization of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and iron by soil microorganisms makes these elements available for reuse by plants. In the following paragraphs the cycling or transformations of some of the important elements are discussed.

To meet the food needs of the burgeoning population, India will need to produce 300 million tonnes of food grains by 2020. At present more than 75% of the total food grains produced in the country are of rice and wheat. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers has contributed much to the remarkable increase in production of rice and wheat in India that has occurred during the past three decades. During the last half-decade or so while fertilizer N consumption is touching new heights, the production of both rice and wheat is showing a trend of plateauing. In fact, fertilizer N efficiency of food grain production expressed as partial factor productivity of N (PFPN) has been decreasing exponentially since 1965. The PFPN is an aggregate efficiency index that includes contributions to crop yield derived from uptake of indigenous soil N. fertilizer N uptake efficiency, and the efficiency with which N acquired by the plant is converted to grain yield. A decrease in PFPN occurs as farmers move yields higher along a fixed N response function, unless other factors shift the response function up. In other words, an initial decline in PFPN is an expected consequence of the adoption of N fertilizers by farmers and not necessarily bad within a system’s context

Under agricultural conditions, the nitrogen removed is usually greater than the nitrogen input. To maintain fertility, nitrogen must be returned to the soil. This takes place mainly by biological nitrogen fixation, which is responsible for the major reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia that is used by the plants. Biological nitrogen fixation accounts for most of the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in to Ammonium, thus representing the key entry point of molecular nitrogen into the biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen (Fig.4.1). Some bacteria can convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium. Most of this nitrogen fixing prokaryote is free living in the soil.

Nitrogen is the most important element on which depends growth and productivity of plants. It is also the most abundant molecule in the atmosphere (80%), yet it cannot be utilized by plants. The plant utilizable form of nitrogen is either, its most oxidized form, the nitrates or the most reduced state, the ammonia.  The indiscriminate use of nitrogenous fertilizers amounts to depletion of non-renewable fossil fuels used in fertilizer production. Sustainable agriculture depends largely on renewable resources and on-farm nitrogen contributions are achieved largely through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), which helps in maintaining and/or improving soil fertility by using atmospheric nitrogen. Annually BNF is estimated to be around 175 million tonnes of which close to 79% is accounted for by terrestrial fixation.

14.1. Determination of Total Nitrogen in Soil (Modified Kjeldahl Method)

Nitrogen mostly present in soil in organic form. Relatively small amount of nitrogen usually occur in ammonium and nitrate form, the available form. The Kjeldahl method of total N determination includes both organic and ammonium form and with modification nitrate form of N can also be included.