eChapters

Involved in plant metabolic functions and the plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element.

7.1. Plant nutrient concentration and plant growth

1. Deficient

Lowest concentration of an essential element that limit yield severely and cause distinct deficiency symptoms.

In the realm of natural elements, there exist approximately one hundred and three distinct elements. Among them, nearly ninety elements are absorbed by plants. To differentiate essential elements from those that plants can assimilate but are not vital, Arnon (1954) established the following criteria:

1. The plant must be incapable of normal growth or completing its life cycle in the absence of the element

2. The element is specific and irreplaceable by another

3. The element directly participates in plant metabolism

By applying these criteria, molybdenum and chlorine are not deemed essential, even though they serve a functional role in plant metabolism. This is because they can be substituted by vanadium and halides, respectively. Subsequently, D. J. Nicholas refined the definition of essential elements, replacing the term “functional or metabolic nutrient” to encompass any mineral element that contributes to plant metabolism, regardless of whether its action is specific.

Crop Stand Establishment

Good crop establishment is one of the most important features in better crop production. The better crop establishment is in turn expressed as optimum plant population in fields.

Plant population is the number of plants per unit area in a cropped field. It indicates the size of the area available for individual plant.

Optimum Plant Population

It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area. Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.

Crop geometry is the pattern of distribution of plant over the ground or the shape of the area available to the individual plant, in a crop field.

Plant propagation refers to the process of increasing number of plants of a cultivar. Plant propagation is of two types viz. sexual and asexual. Sexual propagation is done by seeds, whereas asexual plant propagation is done by vegetative means such as stem/root cuttings, slips, corm, bulbs, rhizomes, grafting, budding, layering, etc. Good quality seed or planting material of established crop varieties should be procured from authentic source to get desired result. The seed should be uniform in size, free from disease infestation, possess good vigour and having good viability. The quality of the seed is decided based on germination percentage. Seeds can be directly sown to raise a crop or seedlings are raised in nursery beds, which are transplanted later to main plot.

Seedlings can be raised in nursery beds, poly bags or pro-trays. The nursery beds are usually kept one meter wide, convenient length and of 15 cm height. The soil of the bed is prepared by addition of well decomposed bulky organic manure, sand and garden soil in equal proportion. The beds have to be disinfected by exposing the soil to sun (solarisation) and addition of neem or karanj oil cake. After sowing the seeds in the bed, those are covered with straw, leaves or compost to protect the seeds from birds and to conserve moisture in the soil. It also helps to maintain the temperature for quick germination. The seeds are sown in lines on the bed.

The application of agricultural chemicals for control of insects, pests, fungi, weeds and plant diseases plays an important role in crop production. Before 1980 few chemicals were known for control of plant pests.  The chemical pesticides have played an important role in the rapid advancement of agricultural production. Chemical pesticides are getting popular due to non availability of labours especially for weeding operation during kharif season. The chemical pesticides and herbicides are applied with the help of different types of sprayers and dusters.

12.1. Sprayers

Atomizes spray fluid into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly.

Regulates amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that is wasteful or harmful.

Introduction
Plant protection is a critical component of modern agriculture, aimed at safeguarding crops from diseases, pests, and weeds that can significantly impact yield and quality. Chapter 10 explores the science of plant protection, focusing on the various disciplines that contribute to maintaining healthy crops and ensuring food security. The chapter begins with an overview of plant pathology, the study of plant diseases caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Key principles of plant pathology are discussed, including the nature of plant diseases, their modes of transmission, and the factors that influence disease development. This section also highlights the importance of accurate disease diagnosis, which is essential for implementing effective prevention and control measures. Entomology, the study of insects and their interactions with plants, is another crucial aspect of plant protection covered in this chapter. The principles of entomology are examined, with a focus on the identification and management of insect pests that threaten crops. Various pest management strategies, including biological, chemical, and cultural methods, are explored, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach to pest control. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a central theme in plant protection, combining multiple strategies to manage pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. The chapter discusses the advantages of IPM, such as reduced reliance on chemical pesticides and minimized environmental impact, as well as the challenges associated with its implementation. Integrated Disease and Pest Management (IDPM) is also introduced, which integrates plant pathology and entomology principles to develop comprehensive management strategies that address both diseases and pests. The chapter further explores the role of pesticides in plant protection, including their benefits and potential risks. Safety measures for pesticide use are emphasized to protect both human health and the environment. Integrated Weed Management (IWM) is also discussed as an essential component of plant protection, with strategies for managing weeds that compete with crops for resources. The importance of plant protection sciences in food security is highlighted, particularly in the context of pest management, disease control, and weed management. These disciplines contribute to sustainable agriculture by enhancing crop yield and quality while promoting environmental sustainability.

9.1. Plant quarantine

Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.

Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

Introduction

Plant analysis can be defined as the quantitative determination of the concentration of an element or extractable fraction of an element in a sample from a particular part or portion of a crop. From the nutritional standpoint, plant analysis is based on the principle that the concentration of a nutrient within the plant is an integral value of all the factors that have interacted to it. Plant analysis is used as an index of available nutrient element supply. Plant growth or yield are compared with the elemental concentrations contained in the dry matter of the entire plant or plant structures such as leaves, petioles, fruit or grain sampled at different times during their development. Plant analysis gives the overall picture of the nutrient levels within the plant at the time the nutrient was taken. The use of plant analysis is based on the principle that the nutrient level present is as a result of all factors affecting the growth of the plant.

Plant analysis involves the determination of nutrient concentration in diagnostic plant part(s) sampled at recommended growth stage(s) of the crop. In a way plant analysis complements soil analysis. There are reliable sampling criteria and procedures for most of the world’s commercial crops.

Importance

Plant analysis assesses nutrient uptake while soil testing predicts nutrient availability. The two tests are complementary to each other as crop management tools. Plant analysis will detect unseen hidden hunger and confirm visual deficiency symptoms. Toxic levels may also be detected. If it is done early, plant analysis will allow a corrective fertilizer application in the same season.

5.1 Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR) and Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act
5.1.1 Introduction
In the context of biotechnology and agricultural innovation, Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBRs) offer exclusive intellectual property protection to individuals or organizations that breed, develop, or discover new plant varieties. These rights ensure economic incentives for plant breeders while promoting innovation in seed development and agricultural productivity. In India, the unique and inclusive Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FR), 2001, balances breeders’ rights with recognition of farmers’ contributions, making it one of the most progressive legislations in the world.
5.1.2 Concept of Plant Breeder’s Rights (PBR)
Plant Breeder’s Rights refer to the exclusive rights granted to plant breeders to produce, sell, market, distribute, import or export their registered plant varieties. These rights are sui generis, meaning they are a special form of IP distinct from patents, developed to cater specifically to plant varieties.
Key Objectives of PBR
• Encourage investment in plant breeding and biotechnology.
• Ensure access to improved crop varieties.
• Prevent unauthorized commercial exploitation of novel varieties.
• Facilitate biodiversity conservation through formal registration systems.

“Biodiversity, the planet’s most valuable resource, is on loan to us from our children.”

The significance of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR’s) is on top of agenda of all those who are concerned with food, nutritional and environmental security by using the Earth’s plant - biodiversity judiciously in a vital form. Agro-biodiversity is the backbone of a nation’s food security and the basis of economic development as a whole. The top-down system of agricultural research, where farmers are seen merely as recipients of research rather than as participants in it, has contributed to an increased dependence on a relatively few plant varieties. Global cooperation from farmers to agricultural scientist is critical for maintaining the balance across the agricultural landscape. Over the years this diversity in India is under pressure due to the massive commercialization of agriculture leading to the almost extinction of traditional farming systems and plant- biodiversity is under immediate threat. Behind this commercialization there lies the interest of the breeders for obtaining intellectual property rights. Around 1.6 billion people depend on farm-saved seed, yet up to 75 per cent of varieties of some key crops have already been lost this century. The rate of loss may well increase as global trade rules, intellectual property rights regimes, the concentration of agricultural research and development on inappropriate technological‘solutions’, and now the introduction and promotion of genetically engineered products, all combine to erode local resources from the fields of smallholder farmers. At the moment, it should call for a balancing on research into modern biotechnology, in favour of a redirection of research and development resources into sustainable, environmentally-friendly technologies that, sustain poor people’s livelihoods, agricultural biodiversity and agro-ecosystem functions. In this context, the importance of farmer-derived Agricultural Biodiversity that includes the variety and variability of plants and micro-organisms which are necessary to maintain the structure, processes and key functions of the agricultural ecosystem for, and in support of, food production and food security.

Biodynamic farming is a holistic agricultural approach that integrates celestial rhythms, including lunar phases and astrological cycles, into farming practices to enhance soil health, plant growth, and farm productivity. Central to this practice are planting calendars and guides, which help farmers align their activities with cosmic rhythms. Additionally, cropping systems in biodynamic farming are designed to optimize resource use, improve soil fertility, and promote ecological balance. This article explores the principles and practical applications of planting calendars and guides in biodynamic farming, examines various cropping systems employed in biodynamic agriculture, and discusses their impact on farm management and sustainability. By understanding these elements, farmers can effectively incorporate biodynamic practices into their agricultural systems, contributing to more resilient and productive farming operations.

Dyes are one of the most important by products of the plants, as they are related with cultural practices, rituals, arts and crafts, fabrics and to satisfy personal embodiment. However, dye yielding plants have not received significant attention (Grover and Patni, 2011). Dye is a substance that has affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied such as textile fibers, foodstuffs and powder. They are organic coloured substances which absorb light in the visible part of the spectrum and have the property of colouring the substrate they are applied to.
 
Colourants which are obtained from plants and natural sources are known as natural dyes. Natural dyes have been traditionally used in most of the countries. These dyes were obtained from roots, leaves and bark (Akhtar et al., 2012). Natural dyes find use in the colouring of textiles, drugs, cosmetics, etc. Owing to their non-toxic effects, they are also used for colouring various food products. In India, there are more than 450 plants that can yield dyes (Siva, 2007).

Abstract

The recent earth movements and the related seismicities in the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been a matter of enigma for a century and more. While one school was strongly holding the opinion that the southern Indian Peninsula is free from recent earth movements as it is a shield area, the other school has narrated the possibilities for the ongoing earth movements. Under these circumstances, the various anomalies observed from satellite data and ground based information on geomorphology, subsurface lithology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry etc. have suggested a possible Pleistocene / Holocene graben along Pondicherry in the northeast and Cumbum Valley in the southwest in the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula.

Abstract

The tectonics of the geological past from Archaeozoic to early part of Cenozoic era has been studied due to their penetrative documentation in the form of folds and faults. But the tectonic history of the latter part of the Cenozoic era (i.e Pleistocene period) has remained a matter of conjecture owing to the poor response of the rocks to Pleistocene movements. In the present study the authors presented a model for the Pleistocene earth movements of South India through the study of river migration, coast line changes and lineament fabric derived from the space borne photographs.

In the area of study, the northerly migration of Paleru and Pennar and southerly shift of Palar, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery rivers, marine regressions restricted within this segment and the closely spaced crest line fractures suggest a lineament controlled E-W trending Quaternary upwarping along Mangalore-Madras alignment. Similar E-W cymatogeny is inferred in the southern tip of the Peninsular India on the basis of once again such observations. Such E-W trending Pleistocene arching phenomenon suggests a N-S oriented regional compression which could be related to the collision of Indian plate with Tibetan plate.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses various fields such as cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and more. The genesis of psychology finds its roots in the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, widely regarded as the Father of Psychology. Etymologically, the term “psychology” stems from the amalgamation of two Greek words: “psyche,” denoting soul, and “logos,” connoting science or rational discourse. Thus, linguistically dissected, psychology embodies the study or science of the soul.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses various fields such as cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and more. The genesis of psychology finds its roots in the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, widely regarded as the Father of Psychology. Etymologically, the term “psychology” stems from the amalgamation of two Greek words: “psyche,” denoting soul, and “logos,” connoting science or rational discourse. Thus, linguistically dissected, psychology embodies the study or science of the soul.

14.1 Changes in policy and strategy

14.1.1 Policy changes

In the discussion on land use planning we suggested that the ideal pattern of development is to establish a long-term national or regional policy, which leads to medium-term strategies, and short-term tactical operations. In the real world a curious situation is arising in that the adoption of the new land husbandry approach is growing so fast that the practitioners have moved ahead of the politicians and opinion formers, with the result that the implementation of strategies by Non-Government Organisations, aid agencies, and senior field officers, is helping to shape new policies.

There is always the problem that national policies ought to be long term, but are created by politicians usually working within a short time frame to the next election. Fortunately, the land husbandry approach allows planners at all levels from farmers to governments to appreciate the long-term issues.

The new approach was mentioned in section 9.2.1 in connection with land use planning. It is summed up in the slogan From soil conservation to land husbandry, and two reviews using that title list the main points as the need for: