eChapters

The floriculture has become an important sector all over world. In India, floriculture has been associated with culture and heritage since very ancient time. In recent decades there has been increasing in demand of floriculture products with increasing income. It is souring industry in Asian countries including India. Floriculture is an emerging area with great potential both in the domestic as well as export market.In India, commercial floriculture is ongoing development but have a long tradition of various types of flowers.Floriculture was being cultivated in 3.5 lakh hectares in the country and 250 varieties of flowers exist in the country.Besides potted plants, roses, carnation, orchids and chrysanthemum are important cut flowers, which are popular in our country. In the increasingly competitive international cut flower and pot plant market, new and novelty ornamental plants plays an important role in stabilization and expanding market share. Always novelty has been considered as an important attribute in ornamental industry. The consumer choice is also changing for product quality level depending upon purpose of purchase, as well as for higher levels of services and a wider and deeper assessment suggesting product diversification. The increasing pace of agricultural transformation in India has been characterized by widening share of commercial crops in the overall basket. Among others, horticulture has shown great promise because of the availability of high-value domestic and international market against the low production base so far. Understandably, it has received special attention of policy-makers and being termed as the sunrise industry within agriculture. India, with its varied agro-climate is ideally suited for growing several types of flowers in different seasons. Although traditional ornamental crops will continue to play key role in the floriculture trade, a distinct trend towards increasing the share of new crops is clearly evident in recent years often referred to as ‘specialty flowers’, these are cut flowers, which are not widely known and also grown in small pockets but have high prospects in the international market. There are over 60 types of new ornamentals, which have been reported to hold potential for commercial utility. Some progressive growers in India have already initiated the process of introducing new ornamental crops in their fields.These new products normally fetch high prices than the traditional crops for a certain period, but quite often the prices drop when market is saturated. By that time new products should be ready to enter the market. In this context introduction of new ornamental crops is therefore continuous effort.

Buffaloes have been classified in two main categories namely riverine and swamp buffaloes depending upon variation in their habitat and genome structure. Riverine buffaloes are generally large in size mostly with curled horns and are mainly found in India, Pakistan and some of the west Asian countries, prefer to enter clear water and have 50 (2n) numbers of chromosomes and are primarily used for milk production and also used for meat production and draught power. Swamp buffaloes are stocky animals with marshy land habitats and have 48 (2n) numbers of chromosomes. They were primarily developed for draught power in paddy fields and haulage and are also used for meat and milk production. Swamp buffaloes are mostly found in south east Asian countries and also in north eastern states of India.

Introduction
Fossil fuels are finite and as population growth drives energy demands, the need for renewable energy solutions has become paramount. Among the many ways of producing biofuels, the use of algae has emerged as a promising source. Algae particularly, microalgae are photosynthetic organisms that can convert CO2 into fuel compounds. This innovative way of using microalgae to produce biofuels can address both sustainability as well as the depletion of fossil fuels.
1.1 Microalgae as energy source
Microalgae can be used over conventional biomass as they have several advantages. One of the biggest advantages is their rapid growth rate. They are easy to grow and multiply very quickly. Other benefits include high oil yield and their adaptability to different growth conditions. They also use CO2 to grow making them carbon neutral. Conventional biomass obtained from sugar bagasse or corn needs a lot of resources for a small yield, such as land, water, and electricity whereas microalgae do not require these high investment costs or land. However, the advantages of microalgae do not stop with biofuel production. Researchers have established the use of microalgae across various industries. Commonly, spirulina has been used as a source of protein surpassing protein content per 100 g compared to other protein-rich sources. Similarly, various other microalgae have been used for extracting vitamins, and essential fatty acids, and some are also used as feed for livestock. In recent years, microalgae have also been used in cosmetics for their antioxidant, collagen-boosting properties that can lead to anti-aging benefits. In the supplement industry, microalgae have been used in research as alternatives to mainstream ingredients. Microalgae also have other environmental benefits as they can be used to treat wastewater due to their ability to degrade pollutants and excess nutrients that concentrate in water bodies. With these benefits at hand, they can also be used as an excellent input for the production of biofuels (Razzak et al, 2022; Ramaraj et al, 2015). The figure below shows the various applications of microalgae such as the production of proteins, carbohydrates, biofuels, materials production, etc.

5.1 PRODUCTION METHODS OR DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANTS PRODUCED IN THE NURSERY

The different types of plants produced in the nursery include plants in plastic bags, bare-root plants, stumps, pseudo estacas, root trainers, copper coated trainers and jiffy pellets.

The most common production techniques may not always be the best. Bare-root plants and pseudo estacas are easy to transport to the field, but their survival and growth are usually very poor. Plastic bags are cheap and easily available, but they result in coiled roots and are heavy to carry to the field. Root trainers, copper coated trainers and jiffy pellets are alternative systems which may have higher initial costs for the nursery. However, the farmer will receive the benefit of fast growth and high survival in the field

Classifications of cropping systems

Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping systems can be adopted on farms and which are as below.

Mono cropping /single cropping: Mono cropping refers to growing only one crop on a particular land year after year or practice of growing only one crop in a piece of land year after year. Example, growing only crops during kharif in rainfed areas and this is due to lack of irrigation facilities and crops depend on rainfall alone.

Climate refers to the long-term pattern of temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind and other weather parameters within a geographical region. Human activities such as industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, land-use change and intensive agriculture have accelerated climate change by increasing greenhouse-gas emissions. Rising temperatures, irregular monsoon rainfall, droughts, floods, cyclones and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide now affect crop growth, development and productivity. Different crops and developmental stages vary in their tolerance to these stresses. Consequently, farmers are modifying cropping patterns, sowing periods and crop choices. This chapter examines the effects of changing climatic conditions on major agricultural crops and identifies suitable adaptation and mitigation measures.

Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, aromatic plants and medicinal species. They contribute substantially to nutrition, farm income, employment, exports and livelihood security. However, their productivity and quality are highly sensitive to temperature, rainfall, humidity, drought, flooding, salinity and other climate-related stresses. Changing climatic conditions affect flowering, fruit setting, maturity, nutritional composition, pest incidence and postharvest quality. Annual and perennial crops respond differently depending on their location, growth stage and environmental requirements. This chapter examines the influence of major climatic factors on horticultural production and discusses adaptive practices required to maintain productivity, quality and economic sustainability under changing environmental conditions.

Azolla, a fresh water fem is a rich source of nitrogen especially for low land rice farming. It is found in rice paddies in many tropical countries like China, India, Korea, Philippines and Vietnam. The agronomic importance of Azolla lies in its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through the symbiotic association with a blue-green alga, Anabaena azolae. The symbiotic association can fix nitrogen proportional to its biomass produced. When Azolla is grown in paddy f ields and subsequently incorporated as green manure, the nitrogen contained within Azolla biomass is mineralized during the process of decomposition.

Azolla is a genus of small aquatic fern comprising 7 living and 25 fossil species, which is globally distributed. It occurs on still water ponds, lakes, swamps, lagoons and paddy fields in both tropical and temperate regions. Because of its rapid growth, high nitrogen percent and its ability to grow in stagnated waters, it has been used as organic manure in Vietnam and China for centuries. Its use in India and other countries is relatively recent. Azollla pinnata is native to India and widely distributed.

Introduction

Conventional agriculture is highly dependent on fossil fuel based mineral fertilizers to compensate for removal of plant nutrients by crops. Chemical fertilizers are not only in short supply but also are very costly. The preparation and use of organic manures are not being practiced in a scientific manner to harness the plant nutrients removed by plants, animals and humans.

The application of chemical fertilizers to soil alone and in an imbalanced way has resulted in deterioration of soil health and its quality. The use of chemical fertilizers has to be reduced to check the soil and water pollution and simultaneously the role of soil microorganisms has to be augmented by different ways such as greater use of biofertilizers. Moreover, the demand for organic food particularly both in developed and developing countries is on rise which opens up immense possibility to use organic manure and biofertilizers for production of foods grains, fruits, vegetables, spices, tea and coffee. Therefore, the production and the use of biofertilizers assumes greater significance and could be an excellent biological alternative to chemical fertilizers.

The solanaceous group of vegetables (tomato, eggplant, chili and bell peppers) generally take up large amounts of nutrients. The amount of nutrients they take up depends on the quantity of fruit and dry matter they produce, which in turn is influenced by a number of genetic and environmental variables. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) known as Tamatar in Hindi is one of the most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world ranking second in importance to potato in many countries. Tomato is widely grown in almost all parts of India and is adapted to wide range of soil and climate conditions. Tomato is consumed either as raw or cooked and is also very important crop for processing in the form of soups, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder. Tomato adds variety of colours and flavour to food.

Tomato is very well known for its nutritive value. Attractive red colour is due to lycopene pigment, pink and yellow colours are due to presence of anthocyanin and carotene pigments. Tomato is rich source of ascorbic acid, which varies from 15-31 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. Tomato also provides minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice is digestible, promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is one of the richest vegetables, which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition.

Abstract

India is one among the major fruit producing countries of the world and offers opportunities of women empowerment through quality fruit production, planting material generation and production of value added products. There is a great opportunity to increase and improve the production of tropical, subtropical, and temperate fruits. Underutilized fruits also have a huge potential waiting to be exploited. This will only be possible with a concerted effort by researchers and growers, especially women to improve quality and increase production based on consumer demand and export potential. Women play significant role in fruit production activities. Unfortunately their access to knowledge, technology, finance, information, and training is minimal which hampers productivity of fruit crops. The mode of female participation in agricultural production varies with the land owning status of farm households. Their roles range from managers to landless labourers. In all farm production, women’s average contribution is estimated at 55 percent to 66 percent of the total labour with percentages much higher in certain regions. About 48 percent of India’s self-employed farmers are women. Thus, rural India is witnessing a process of transition which could be described as feminization of agriculture particularly fruit crop cultivation and their post harvest management. Women play an active role in various production and postproduction activities of horticultural crops. The number of women engaged in horticulture has increased continuously in the past two-three decades due to various factors such as migration of men to urban areas in search of non-farm income, increase in the demand of labour force in construction and other sectors. The data on the women involved in horticulture sector are scanty however the involvement of women in various operations of cultivation and post harvest handling and storage is very high because of entrepreneurial nature of horticulture. There is need to adopt collective and SHG approach to take women contributions to socio-economic significance. Thus horticulture, especially the pre-harvest and post harvest management of fruit crops have considerable employment avenues for women and make horticulture an effective subject of women empowerment.

Biofertilizer is still an unclear term. It can be easily found that biofertilizers are identified as plant extract, composted urban wastes, and various microbial mixtures with unidentified constituents, and chemical fertilizer formulations supplemented with organic compounds. Likewise, the scientific literature has a very open interpretation of the term biofertilizer representing everything from manures to plant extracts.  Quality control of biofertilizers involves several major aspects such as isolation and identification of various strains, screening of the pure isolated strains, fermentation and quality control and finished product.

India has the second largest concentration of tribal population after African continent. The tribal population of India is more than 8 per cent of the total population (Anonymous 2001). However, in Maharashtra it is over 9 per cent of the state population. Among the tribal community Bhil community is the largest tribal population in Maharashtra. They live in compact areas, which are generally hilly and undulating terrain. The Bhil are primarily farmers, though they are said to be hunters since the past. Poor condition of soil, small holdings, poor resources and economic condition, traditional methods of agriculture do not provide them a regular and continuous sustenance throughout the year as such they have to depend on other subsidiary sources of earning.

Most of the tribal communities have to live under a difficult economy; the ways of their livelihood are limited and work very hard to get a bare subsistence. Thus, the tribal children from their early age are burdened with a number of economic duties, obligations and they can hardly be spared for school. Proportion of dropout is also higher among tribal children. In fact most of the tribal youth and school going children participate in farming and looking after the economic demands of the family.

ICT refers to tools that facilitate production, transmission and processing of information. It includes the gadgets and processes to access, retrieve, store, organize, manipulate, produce, present and exchange information by electronic and automated means. According to UNESCO (2004), Information Communication Technology includes a range of technologies starting from radio, television, up to modern technologies like mobile phone, multimedia, internet, and satellite based communication systems. Modern information and communication technologies that have resulted from a breakthrough in information technology, when applied to conditions in rural areas, can help to disseminate information, improve farmers’ knowledge, increase their participation and share knowledge with others. Information Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the yardsticks to measure socio-economic development of the country and hence effective usage and management of ICTs tools is the pre-requisite for any development. Telephone is a powerful electronic device. The number of rural telephones was increased by approximately 35 per cent per annum (Jhunjhunwala and Ashok, 2005). This impressive growth in telecommunication sector is being utilized to provide information on demand to the farming community with the establishment of “Kissan Call Centers” (KCCs).  Kissan Call Centres were launched in January 2004 across the country to provide information services to the needy farmers and answer the queries made by them through telephone. In this context, a study was conducted to find out the profile of Kissan Call Centre users.

Introduction

Libraries are a center of information for the academic community of the universities in Kerala. It acts as a gateway to global knowledge. Libraries provide seamless access to the information that supports teaching, learning research, and extension. It also ensures fair access to knowledge in the academic community. The libraries fulfill the objectives of their parent organization. It caters to the educational needs of students, researchers, and faculty/Scientists of the universities for study, research, teaching, and extension activities.

Abstract

In the present study, the village chicken rearing practices were documented in Kannur and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. A total of 128 native chicken farming households were surveyed. The system of management is extensive backyard type with the provision of shelter at night. Around 90% of the farmers had more than five years of continuous experience in village chicken farming. Majority (73.4%) of chicken present in this region was either reproduced within the household from earlier generations or added from the neighbourhoods of the same Panchayat. Most of the farmers (68.8%) consider that chickens are reared for both egg and meat; while, others (31.3%) deem that they are meant for eggs alone. As many as 87 % of the farmers cull the surplus males before one and half years of age. In contrast, majority of farmers (78.1%) do not cull female birds and usually maintain them till their death.