eChapters

Pulse legumes are considered to be the best choice for intensification of predominant cereal-based systems. The studies conducted in different agro-climatic zones under AICRP on cropping systems have revealed that the productivity of existing cropping-systems can be enhanced by the inclusion of legumes during summer or as catch crop, or in intercropping systems (Gangwar et al., 2009). Further, these food legumes also serve as a feed crop in many farming systems and fetch higher prices compared to cereals and are increasingly being grown to supplement farmers’ incomes (Gouda et al., 1999). Although pulse legumes have many desirable characteristics in terms of increasing system’s productivity, raising nutritional standards and environmental benefits, in most countries of the world they are considered secondary crops. Globally, the harvested area under pulse crops is about one-tenth of the harvested area under all cereal crops. In view of the important and diverse role played by pulses in the farming systems and in the diets of the poor population, this chapter presents the global trade scenario in pulses followed by pulses production and trade opportunities in India. An attempt is also made to highlight the major concerns and to meet the future challenges in production and trade of pulses in India.

In the post-green revolution period, the incessant rice-rice/wheat crop rotation has undoubtedly made the country surplus in cereal production but has marginalized pulses. This has raised serious concern about sustainability of the production system. Recognizing the importance of pulses for meeting dietary requirements of vast vegetarian population on one hand and their role in improving soil health and conserving natural resources on the other, the efforts were made to develop high yielding, short duration and disease resistant varieties of different pulse crops which can help in diversification and intensification of popular cropping systems. As a result, several new cropping systems have been designed, developed and advocated for rainfed and irrigated areas.

Pulses play an important role in improving the soil health through biological nitrogen fixation. These crops also help to conserve natural resources and therefore help to conserve natural resources and sustain the agricultural productivity. With almost one-fourth population below the poverty line, the recent steep hike in prices has made the availability of pulses for this section of society even more difficult, thus, further jeopardizing both food and nutritional security.

To explain the main concepts and elements of a participatory curriculum development process

To present practical skills and knowledge leading to the effective design of teaching and learning

To build confidence of the learners in applying new methods and approaches to teaching and field extension work.

To demonstrate application of participatory approach in development of Extension curriculum

This Toolkit emphasizes an active learning approach, based on the process of experience, reflection and action. The key principle is that people do not learn simply by passive listening. They need to be involved from beginning of the training and designing of the program.

7.1 Economics and Valuation of ghgs emissions

Since the late 20^th century, it has been largely accepted that cause of high concentration of GHGs in atmosphere is induced by human activities. Greenhouse gas emissions and related climate change has opened up debate on overall economic losses and ways to reduce these loses. Moreover, apart from curbing monetary losses; the global political leaders as well as reputed economists are looking towards making money by saving the emissions. Recently, the researchers have started to emphasize on the actual value added to the ecosystem by curbing emissions, discrete of the economic benefits. This section will discuss the economics and ecosystem services related to the management of GHG emissions.

Origin

The initiative to curb the emissions started in 1992 with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The Convention took place from 3 to 14 June, 1992. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty designed to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. The UNFCCC had non-binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and the framework was only meant for formulating precise international treaties (called “Protocols” or “Agreements”). It contained no execution mechanisms, however, it considered some negotiations and suggestions to formulate the action plans and regulation guidelines under UNFCCC to fulfill the objective of reduction of GHG emissions to the desired level.

PV clad structures and hybrid devices for rural and agricultural applications have been developed after considering different design aspects, climatic parameters, solar radiation availability on different planes, heat transfer coefficients, performance of PV in arid region and inter phasing of different components while keeping in view, practicality, application and ease of operation. Performance of the developed systems was studied, mathematical model developed and energy savings worked out for techno-economic considerations. The chronology and details of the developed PV structures and hybrid devices are as follows:

Green structure for environmental control

First of all a Quonset type environment control structure having a length of 5.3 m and width 4 m was fabricated with angle iron and iron rods and it was covered by agro-net (75%) having surface area of about 55 m². The structure having a volume of 33 m³ was fixed with long side along east west direction and had provisions for incorporation of misting unit on west side and a door on east.

Background and Technology intervention

Instead of open channel irrigation, intervention of PVC pipeline system using gravitational hydraulic pressure can convey efficient water without the use of power. This will reduce conveyance loss and improve timely and equitable distribution of water to all farmers. As large number of open wells with pump sets are available, uninterrupted power supply is not available for on time irrigation during summer seasons. During such times, savings from tank water will be more helpful allowing the farmer to manage groundwater greatly.

3.1 Overview of pyrolysis technology

Pyrolysis is a process derived from the Ancient Greek words “pyro” meaning f ire and “lysis” meaning separation, which means separating by using heat or fire. This is a thermochemical conversion process that converts biomass into a useful intermediate liquid product, which can be further transformed into a hydrocarbon biofuel, oxygenated fuel additive, or substitute for petrochemicals. Pyrolysis is similar or overlapping with other thermochemical processes such as cracking, carbonization, torrefaction, destructive distillation, dry distillation, and thermolysis. It is not related to gasification, which involves chemical reactions with a gasification medium.

5.1 Introduction

Today, energy distribution and environmental issues have developed into international threats. Demand for alternative fuels increases every day due to rapid population growth, rising living standards, and economical sustainability. With its massive population, India has become the fourth largest energy consumer country in the world after the United States, China, and Russia. Because most nations use fossil fuels to fulfill their energy demands, they create negative impacts on the environment including raising global temperatures, pollution, acid rain, and other effects. As such, the quest for alternative fuels derived from renewable resources has captured significant attention throughout the world¹. Biomass as a renewable energy sources is an important asset for achieving economic development is due to the availability of biomass at a low cost, a good conversion efficiency, the addition of jobs, and an increase in the biodiversity^2,3. Typically, biomass is composed of cellulose (40-50%), hemicelluloses (25-35%), and lignin (15-30%). Large amount of resources for biomass are available such as woody biomass, crop residues and their by-products, food processing waste, municipal solid waste, aquatic plant etc.

In the present context, pyrolysis process has been received a remarkable identity as a potential method for the conversion of any organic biomass into valuable energy rich products due to its simple in operation and also required a reasonable cost for conversion process. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of any organic material at a specific temperature in absence of air/oxygen; the process ends with three resulting products, namely liquid (bio-oil), solid (biochar), and syngases⁴. Recently, biooil produced through pyrolysis process and further it up grading has been attracted a significant attention due to its major use as biofuel and as a precursor material for making chemicals⁵. The pyrolysis process also classified in three different types as per its operating conditions; slow, fast and flash pyrolysis.

8.1 General

Pyrolysis is a process that utilizes heat or fire to separate biomass, derived from the ancient Greek words “pyro” meaning fire, and “lysis” meaning separation. A thermochemical conversion process transforms biomass into a useful intermediate liquid product. This product can then be converted into a hydrocarbon biofuel, oxygenated fuel additive, or a petrochemical substitute. Pyrolysis shares similarities with other thermochemical processes such as cracking, carbonization, torrefaction, destructive distillation, dry distillation, and thermolysis. However, it is not related to gasification, which involves chemical reactions with a gasification medium.

This chapter focuses on the design and performance evaluation of pyrolyzers, which are key components in producing biochar, biofuels, and other valuable products through the pyrolysis process. Pyrolyzer play a crucial role in converting biomass feedstock into desired end products, and their design greatly influences process efficiency and product quality. The chapter discusses various aspects of pyrolyzer design, including reactor types, operating conditions, heating methods, feedstock characteristics, and process optimization. It also explores performance evaluation methods to assess pyrolyzer efficiency, product yield, biochar quality, and energy consumption. The information presented in this chapter aims to provide researchers, engineers, and practitioners with valuable insights into pyrolyzer design and performance evaluation for efficient and sustainable biomass conversion.

1. Introduction:- Overview of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Scope of GLP
GLP refers to a set of standards that govern the organizational processes, personnel responsibilities, and conditions under which laboratory studies are conducted. It aims to regulate research environments and ensure the generation of high-quality, traceable, and reproducible results. The scope of GLP encompasses a wide range of scientific fields including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, veterinary products, and environmental safety assessments. Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) regulations were developed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and well adopted by regulatory agencies world-wide. The primary objective of GLP is to promote high standards of accuracy and integrity in non-clinical research to protect human health and the environment.
1.2 Principles of GLP
The fundamental principles of GLP include:
• Study Planning and Protocol Development: Every study must have a clear plan and defined objectives, which should be outlined in a comprehensive protocol.
• Personnel Responsibilities: The roles of study directors, scientists, quality assurance personnel, and support staff are clearly defined.
• Test Systems and Facilities: Laboratories must maintain appropriate facilities and control systems for conducting studies. These include properly calibrated equipment, controlled environments, and standardized procedures.
• Data Integrity and Reporting: Data must be meticulously recorded, verified, and archived, ensuring it is traceable and reproducible.
• Study Documentation and Archiving: All records, raw data, and reports must be stored and accessible for a period defined by regulations, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.

Biofertilizers are one of the important components of organic farming and sustainable agriculture. Awareness among farmers is increasing on the biological fertilizers. But, the success of biofertilizer inoculation depends on the quality of the inoculant used. Because farmers are unable to judge the quality of the inoculants at the time of purchase or even at use. The inoculant producers are negligent to institute quality control programmes. Unfortunately much of the inoculant produced in the world today is relatively of poor quality. In such situation maintaining high quality inoculant products depend on the internal implementation of effective quality control systems by manufacturer. A major goal of a quality standard is to control the quality of inoculant to be used in any country.

The organic quality is based on standards, inspection, certification and accreditation. All organic food is produced and handled according to strict rules called ‘Organic Standards’. Organic standards do not define a quality status which can be measured in the final products (e.g. quantity of pesticides residues, heavy metals, etc). They define the way of production (e.g. that no chemical pesticides and fertiliser are used).

Quality Control addresses the standards and management practices required to ensure reliable and effective biofertilizer products. It introduces general quality concepts, quality-control parameters, microbial functions, and properties of microbial products. The chapter then explains quality-management procedures for important biofertilizer groups, including Rhizobium, nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixers, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria. Quality-control measures are linked to product performance, consistency, storage, and application suitability. By emphasizing systematic assessment and management, the chapter highlights why quality assurance is essential for maintaining viable microbial populations and delivering predictable agricultural benefits from biofertilizers and related biological inputs. across production and distribution systems effectively today.

Introduction

It is necessary to ascertain the quality of irrigation water so as to gauge the possible effects of this water on the soil. The irrigation water often results in water logging, salinity and alkalinity problems. It is therefore very important to know its quality. Following are the basic criteria or characteristics on which irrigation water quality is judged.

1. Presence of total soluble salts in irrigation water.
2. Proportion of carbonates and bicarbonates in relation to calcium and magnesium in irrigation water.
3. Proportion of sodium in relation to other cations in irrigation water.
4. Concentration of specific ions in irrigation water.

Several parameters are employed to judge the quality of irrigation waters No parameter in complete in judging the quality of irrigation water. Further the quality of water should be judged by considering the crop and soil factors. Any judgment without considering the above factors may not be useful. Researchers devised many parameters by following above said criteria. Some of the commonly adopted parameters used to judge the quality of irrigation water are:

The quality of irrigation water has a direct influence on soil properties, crop growth and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Water containing excessive salts or undesirable proportions of specific ions can create salinity, sodicity and other soil-related problems. This chapter presents the major criteria used for evaluating irrigation water quality. Salinity hazard is considered as an important indicator of the potential for salt accumulation in the soil and consequent restrictions on plant water uptake. Sodium hazard is examined because excessive sodium can adversely affect soil structure and permeability. The chapter also considers the salt index as a measure relevant to the evaluation of irrigation water. Bicarbonate hazard is discussed in relation to the chemical behaviour of irrigation water and its potential effects on soil conditions. Magnesium hazard is another important consideration in assessing the suitability of water for irrigation. By bringing these criteria together, the chapter provides a framework for evaluating irrigation water before application. Proper assessment of water quality is essential for selecting appropriate management practices and preventing long-term degradation of irrigated soils.

Introduction
Water is one of the most vital natural resources for sustaining life on Earth. However, its availability is not uniform across the planet, and the growing demand for freshwater in the face of climate change, population growth, and industrial development has raised serious concerns about the future of water resources. In 2024, the global water landscape presents both challenges and opportunities, shaped by shifting environmental patterns, technological advances, and policy responses to water scarcity. Water resources refer to the natural sources of water that can be utilized for various purposes, including water supply. Approximately 97% of the Earth’s water is saline, found primarily in oceans, while only about 2.5% is fresh water, but only a small portion of this is accessible. The majority of freshwater is locked in glaciers, ice caps, and deep underground aquifers. Less than 1% of Earth’s freshwater are readily available in rivers, lakes, and accessible groundwater for human use. Of this small fraction, nearly two-thirds is locked in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water exists predominantly as groundwater, with only a small percentage available as surface water in rivers, lakes, and atmospheric moisture. The primary natural sources of freshwater include surface water, underflow in riverbeds, groundwater, and frozen water in glaciers. In addition to these, artificial sources such as treated wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater are increasingly being used to supplement the global freshwater supply, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. As agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, the management and quality of irrigation water are vital for sustaining food production and maintaining the health of ecosystems. Water is essential not only for basic plant functions, such as photosynthesis and nutrient absorption, but also for controlling temperature and supporting soil structure. In regions where rainfall is insufficient or irregular, irrigation provides a reliable source of water to meet the needs of crops throughout their growth cycle.

Water used for irrigation contain some salts, but quantities and kinds vary greatly depending on the source of water. Since sodic status of soils can be greatly influenced by salts in irrigation waters, successful irrigation practices require the evaluation system to judge irrigation water quality and methods employed. The actual damage done by salt to plants or soils depends on the concentration in soil solution rather than the quality of irrigation water applied. Thus, the use of some water source for irrigation might lead to severe salt problem in soils where drainage is restricted.

Criteria for evaluation of irrigation water

Various criteria considered in evaluating the quality of irrigation water are:

1. Salinity hazard

The most satisfactory method for rating the salt content of irrigation water involves measuring electrical conductivity. Various conductivity limits have been proposed to indicate the degree of salinity problems that might be anticipated with use of irrigation water on crops. There are four classes of salinity hazard such as C₁, C₂, C₃, and C₄.

Seed in agriculture recognized as one of the most vital and crucial input in agriculture ever since the human kind has started tilling the land to produce the food for his existences. Seed technologist defined seed as matured fertilized ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A quality hybrid maize seed production system ensures design of the production technology which enables to maintain the healthy embryo, endosperm and /or cotyledon with protective covering. In fact the search of quality seed had acted as a major force to evolve the science of plant breeding. Ever since the farmers understood the importance of seed, they started trading the quality seed within community and now between geographies. Self-pollinated crops possess the natural mechanisms to maintain the intactness of genetic constitution of a seed during multiplication as there is very minimal chance of natural crossings. On the contrary, cross pollinated crops like maize requires special techniques in seed multiplication to maintain the genetic constitution of a F₁ hybrid. Hybrid Maize seed production techniques are well defined and are used by public and private sectors to produce the required hybrid seed in India. In this chapter, I will be highlighting the process, potential agro-climatic zones, hybrid maize seed production capacity and its future perspective in India. In addition, it also reviews the current system and possible strategic move in order to support the maize seed production system and steps required to meet future demand.