eChapters

Introduction

India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25 percent of the global production, 15 per cent trade and 27 per cent consumption, being an inseparable ingredient in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on marginal and sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under pulses are rainfed.

9.1 Introduction

Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways. It is an important part of the ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity also depends. Fresh water scarcity for agriculture, industry and household purpose is not only limited to the arid climatic regions, but also in areas having high rainfall. Water scarcity is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration rate, high evaporation demand and larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation.

1. Monsoon: Types and Behavior in India

The monsoon is a dynamic and vital climatic phenomenon in India, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s weather patterns, agricultural practices, and overall water resource management. This seasonal shift in wind patterns brings about distinct wet and dry periods, impacting various regions differently. Understanding the types and behavior of the monsoon is essential for effective planning and adaptation to this critical aspect of India’s climate (fig 1).

Types of Monsoon in India

1. Southwest Monsoon (June to September)

The southwest monsoon is the lifeline of India’s agriculture, bringing the much needed rainfall that supports a majority of the country’s crops.

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the randomized block design (RBD), detailing its theoretical concept, layout, and a detailed segment on pooled ANOVA concepts. It explains the mathematical models for RBD and how to interpret the results from ANOVA tables in this context. The chapter also offers step-by-step guidance for analyzing RBD, Factorial RBD, and pooled RBD ANOVA using R.

Randomized Block Design

The RBD is a widely used experimental design in statistics and research, particularly when dealing with certain specific conditions:

• Homogeneity within blocks: RBD is ideal when there is inherent variability in the experimental units, but this variability can be grouped into homogenous blocks. Each block contains a complete set of treatments, and the blocks themselves account for the variability.

• Principles of experimental design: RBD adheres to the core principles of experimental design, namely randomization, replication, and local control. Randomization is used within blocks to assign treatments, ensuring that the comparison of treatments is fair.

• Replication across blocks: In RBD, each treatment is replicated across different blocks. This replication enhances the reliability and robustness of the experimental results.

• Managing uncontrolled variability: RBD is particularly effective in field experiments or situations where external variability (e.g., soil type, light conditions) cannot be completely controlled. By grouping similar units into blocks, RBD effectively reduces the impact of this uncontrolled variability on the treatment effects.

• Improvement in experimental accuracy: The use of blocks to organize the experimental units usually leads to a reduction in the error variance compared to CRD. This enhances the accuracy and precision of the experiment.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Rapeseed
Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), a member of the Brassicaceae family, is one of the primary oilseed crops cultivated for biodiesel production, particularly in Europe and Canada (Hoekman et al., 2012; Demirbas, 2009). Its seeds contain 40-45% oil, making it one of the most efficient oil crops for biofuel production (Ramos et al., 2009). The extracted oil is known as canola oil, which is preferred for both food and fuel applications due to its low erucic acid and glucosinolate content (Atabani et al., 2012). Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), is one of the biofuel species that has achieved global attention, primarily due to its high yield, climatic versatility as well as its low environmental impact than fossil fuels (Singh et al., 2010). The crop is being grown all over the temperate region because its ability to resist cold temperatures and pests is a major advantage for the practice of sustainable agriculture. Moreover, the rapeseed has been positively affected by the development of biotechnology and the utilization of hybrid breeding that has been significantly increasing the oil yield and disease resistance of rapeseed, thus, facilitating the biodiesel production from this plant (Zanetti et al., 2013). Biodiesel from rapeseed has ecological advantages, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions by up to 50% compared to regular diesel (Hill et al., 2006). It also supports rural economic development through the diversification of farmer income and diminishing reliance on imported petroleum (FAO, 2021). The increasing price of the biofuel, chiefly supported by sustainable energy policies and reducing carbon footprint policies, is one of the driving factors for increasing demand of rapeseed as global demand for renewable energy sources rises (Euopean Commission 2021).
Sunflower
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important oilseed crop used for biodiesel production, especially in temperate regions like Europe and North America (Demirbas, 2009). The oil content of sunflower seeds ranges from 25-50%, making it a suitable feedstock for biofuel (Atabani et al., 2012). The characteristics of sunflower oil, such as the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, lead to better cold flow properties of its biodiesel (Ramos et al., 2009). In addition, the creation of high-oleic sunflower varieties allowed considerable improvement in oxidative stability and led to the fact that sunflower biodiesel is more suitable for storage and combustion (Dimitrijevic et al., 2017). A second

Introduction
 
Poor nutrient use efficiency result in loss of nearly 0.8 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of phosphorus and 26.3 million tonnes of potassium annually. Soil health is further deteriorated by imbalanced application of nutrients and excessive mining of micronutrients, leading to deficiency of macro- and micronutrients in the soils (ICAR Vision 2030). Due to the imbalanced use of plant nutrients, mining of nutrients is considered as the main cause for decline in crop yield and crop response ratio.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

Soil testing kit is developed to determine the available nutrient status of soil by rapid test methods. With this system of soil testing, a farmer can test his own soil as often and, in as many places as he feels necessary, and after gauging the need of his soil, he can apply the fertilizers as required. The present mode of soil testing in laboratories usually takes few days and sometime weeks and the farmers may have to travel long distances to submit the soil sample.

The crop growth and productivity is conditioned by many factors of which, the nutrient status (Content) of plant parts such as leaf, stem, etc play a critical role. Moreover the leaf and stem are considered as the indicator parts of plants for assessing the nutrients content of plant. Each crop plant requires the essential element at a specific concentration at different growth stages and it is known as ‘critical level’. When the nutrient content of plant depletes below the critical level the plants may exhibit some symptoms. The requirement or otherwise the availability of nutrients can be assessed by i) plant diagnosis ii) soil analysis and iii) plant analysis by two methods a) by qualitative test and b) by quantitative estimation. Based on the plant or soil tests, the required nutrients can be applied for crops to sustain the growth and rectify the deficiency disorders. The rapid tissue test would pave way for rectifying the nutritional problems for quick recovery, however the quantitative estimation of both plant and soil for nutrients concentration will be more useful and economic for applying fertilizers either as basal or foliar and would be the long term strategy to cope up with nutritional problems.

For rapid tissue test to assess the nutrient status, different parts of plant should be taken as indicator tissue and some of the representative crops are furnished below:

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

Fisheries
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Agricultural Tools
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Management Practices
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Protection Measures
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Medicinal Plants
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Post Harvest Methods
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”