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Seed Storage Structures
Seed Storage Structure
Kuluppai / Kulumai (Mud Pot)
Th. Gopalakrishnan, 52 years old is residing in A.Edayapatti village in Manapparai taluk of Trichy district. He is educated up to 10^th standard and has agriculture as his primary occupation. He possesses a post harvest storage structure called ‘kuluppai/kulumai’.

It is a storage structure used to store grains, which is suited to all ecosystems. This structure is invented by ancestors and maintained for more than 100 years until now. 

Traditional Varieties

3.1. Reserve Bank of India

Established in April 1, 1935 as per RBI Act, 1934.

Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) organized in 1935 coordinated Bank’s operations with State Co-operative Banks and other banks and organization dealing with agricultural credit

Financing agriculture by commercial banks is looked after by Department of Banking Operations and Development (DBOD)

While, ACD continued to take care of co-operative credit

Introduction 
Rural entrepreneurship is not only important as a means of generating employment opportunities in the rural areas with low capital cost and raising the real income of the people, but also its contribution to the development of agriculture and urban industries Building capacity of Rural Agri-prenuers are a promising solution for unemployment (Renuka, 2020), migration, economic disparity, reduce poverty, development of rural areas and backward regions. Most of the rural populace is associated with agriculture and allied activities as pedigree occupation. However, to be commercially viable, these units need to sharpen their skill sets to thrive as a successful venture. India is home to about 700 tribal groups with a population of 104 million, as per 2011 census. This indigenous people constitute the second largest tribal population in the world after Africa. Tribal population of Jammu & Kashmir is among the nascent Tribal Groups joining the main stream of planned development, to which they have brought a distinct and colourful cultural variety. Their economy is closely linked with the forests and they are living a substandard life because of their primitive mode of livelihood. Majority of them are placed below the poverty line, possessing meagre assets and are exclusively dependent on wages, forest produce and farming, that too in a traditional way which leads to non remunerative returns. The peculiar aspect of tribals of our state is their scattered population who inhabit the difficult and remote geographic terrains which poses a severe threat to their speedy development. In J&K state the following communities have been declared as scheduled tribes 1. Balti, 2. Beda, 3. Bot, Bota, 4. Brokpa, Drokpa, Dard, Shin, 5. Changpa, Garran, 6. Mon, 8. Purigpa, 9. Gujjar, 10. Bakerwal, 11. Gaddi and 12. Sippi.

The chemistry of humic substances is the least comprehended in the field of Soil Science. The many important functions of humus will remain obscure if the structural chemistry of the humic and fulvic acids is not known. A variety of functional groups have been reported in humic substances. However, considerable disagreement still exists in respect of the exact amounts present and, in some cases, proof of existence is lacking.

Some important structural groups of organic molecules are given below:

Real-time crop monitoring for efficient climate guidance extends beyond monsoon-dependent regions and holds significant importance in a global agricultural context. While the fundamental technologies and principles remain similar, the specific applications and benefits are tailored to the diverse agricultural systems and climates worldwide.
10.1. Global Applicability Across Diverse Agricultural Systems
• Rain-fed Agriculture (Beyond Monsoons): In semi-arid and arid regions globally, where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable, real-time monitoring of soil moisture and plant stress through remote sensing and ground sensors is crucial for optimizing the limited water resources and implementing drought management strategies (Fig.10.1).
• Irrigated Agriculture: Even in systems relying on irrigation, real-time monitoring helps optimize water usage based on actual crop needs and prevailing weather conditions, preventing over-irrigation and conserving water, a critical resource globally.
• Temperate and High-Latitude Agriculture: In these regions, real-time monitoring can track temperature fluctuations, frost risks (as you researched previously), and the impact of shorter growing seasons on crop development, allowing for timely interventions like frost protection or adjustments to planting schedules.
• Tropical Agriculture: Beyond monsoons, tropical regions often face challenges like high humidity and pest/disease pressure. Real-time monitoring of leaf wetness and other microclimate factors aids in targeted pest and disease management, reducing the need for broad-spectrum applications.

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

Introduction

The importance of soil in agriculture cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation for crop growth and sustenance. However, many regions grapple with problematic soils characterised by issues such as poor fertility, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. In recent years, significant steps have been made in addressing these challenges through innovative approaches and technologies. This change in outlook includes the combination of imaginative advancements, protection procedures, and biological standards to enhance farming efficiency while limiting ecological effects (Singh et al., 2011).

Farmers are challenged with the management of problematic soils characterised by fertility issues, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. Sustainable agricultural techniques depend on the efficient management of problematic soils, which is also critical to environmental sustainability, global food security, and farming systems' ability to withstand climate change. The idea of changing soil and harvest management practices a complex system that incorporates accurate horticulture, agroecology, and computerised cultivating innovations (Fu et al., 2021).

ABSTRACT

Plant growth promoting (PGP) bacteria play an immense role in promoting crop growth mainly by direct mechanisms such as N_2-fixation, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone production and indirectly may help to suppress pathogens or contribute to enhance absorption of nutrients leading to increase yields. The N₂fixers are grouped based on their niche adaptation as endophytic nodular symbionts (Rhizobium spp.), free living (Azotobacter spp.), associative symbionts (Azospirillum spp.) and endophytic non-nodular symbionts (Azoarcus and Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus). In the recent past, phosphate solubilizing and phytohormone synthesizing bacterial communities also gained momentum.

1. Introduction
Soils stand out as an intricate and diverse ecosystem on our planet. Their significance extends beyond supplying 98.8% of the world’s food, encompassing a wide array of essential services such as carbon storage, regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, flood prevention, and offering support to burgeoning urban populations. However, it is crucial to recognize that soil is a finite natural resource. The unprecedented growth of the human population, escalating from 250 million in the year 1000 to 6.1 billion in 2000, with projections reaching 9.8 billion by 2050, along with the intensified practices of agricultural production, is exerting immense pressure on the sustainability of soils.
For long-term sustenance the concept of ‘Soil quality’ was propagated around three decades back from now in the United States of America, and further expanded to the scientists of European and Asian countries. Soil health and soil quality are two interweaving term that signifies the potentiality or capacity of soil towards mankind. These two words complement each other in such a way that one term automatically comes with another to determine both aspects i.e. agricultural sustainability and environmental quality in terms of plant, animal and human health (Haberern, 1992; Doran, 2002). Idowu et al. (2007) remarked that the term “soil quality” is more favoured by scientists, whereas “soil health” is a term favoured by farmers as it connotes a holistic approach to soil management. The inception and application of soil quality term was officially approved by Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). They defined soil quality as “The capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health” as illustrated by Karlen et al. (1997). It is a complex composition of certain properties associated with physical (texture, bulk density, water holding capacity, infiltration capacity etc.), chemical (pH, EC, organic carbon, extractable macronutrient and micronutrient etc.) and biological (microbial activity and related parameters) conditions of soil (Prabha et al., 2020). There are primarily two key methodologies for assessing soil quality: the descriptive approach, which focuses on characterizing various aspects or attributes of soil quality, and the Indicative approach, which aims to identify the ability or capacity of an attribute in a desired manner. The comprehensive process of developing a soil quality index is guided by the 3-Is framework: the Identification of indicators, Interpretation, and Integration of selected soil quality indicators. It is important to note that the specific set of indicators utilized can vary between different soils, diverse agroecosystems, and from one crop to another. Additionally, climatic conditions and other abiotic factors may also significantly influence the assessment of soil quality.
The USDA has categorized soil quality indicators into four primary groups: visual, physical, chemical, and biological indicators. However, in the current context, the dominant indicators are physical, chemical, and biological. For a systematic assessment of soil quality, it is crucial to collect individual parameters and integrate them meaningfully. Consequently, integrated soil quality indicators

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

The ability to fast-track development and delivery of improved maize cultivars with capacity to provide climate-resilience (high and stable yields in stress-prone environments), coupled with improved nutritional quality, will be critical for sustainable intensification and diversification of maize-based cropping systems, and for providing enhanced income opportunities to the smallholders. This warrants coordinated multi-institutional efforts and implementation of innovative strategies to further increase genetic gains through breeding, and to translate these gains in the farmers’ fields. This article will focus only on the novel tools/ technologies/strategies that are being employed by CIMMYT for increasing genetic gains, especially for grain yield under stress-prone environments in the tropical/sub-tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Asia.

Novel tools/techniques/strategies for increasing genetic gains in the tropics

“Genetic gain” (also called as selection response) refers to the difference in the mean value of the selection criterion between original generation and next generation (formed from only the selected individuals), when they were compared in the same environment. The selection criterion is the trait(s) on which selection is based. While conventional breeding has been successful in improving maize yields over the decades, and especially in the last one decade in India through single-cross hybrids, the significantly rising demand for maize in the tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia warrants sharp increases in genetic gains. Thus, the major challenge for the present generation of product development teams is to double the genetic gains for grain yield under stressed environments, i.e., from the present <1% to at least 1.5% within the next 5-6 years.

Introduction

According to the United Nations (UN, DESA 2019) the world population will reach around 9.7 billion by 2050. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has predicted that the world food grain production must increase by 70% by the year 2050 to feed this ever-growing population (Bernard et al., 2017). United Nations World Population Prospects (2022) also predicted the same (Fig 1). However, it is a matter of great concern that the global food grain production has not increased to any significant level (Fig 2) in the past 15 years. As seen in Fig 2, the global food grain production trend has reached a plateau. The main reason behind this fact is the degradation of this valuable natural resource (soil) beyond the tolerance limit due to anthropogenic activities such as imbalanced fertiliser use with the application being largely skewed in favour of nitrogen (N) fertilisers. As per the available data from 2020-21, in nutrient terms, India consumes a total of 32.5 million tonnes (Mt) of fertilisers swhich are distributed over a stable net cultivated area of 141 million hectares (Mha) (Singh et al., 2022). Associated with this is the expenditure of a huge amount of energy for producing these fertilisers, which principally comes from fossil fuel burning, pumping a gigantic quantity of groundwater to solubilise these fertilisers and so on. Not only nitrogen, but the usage of phosphatic and potassic fertilisers has also witnessed an upsurge in the last 50 years (Fig 3).

INTRODUCTION
Efficient management of record-keeping, inventory, finance, and human resources is crucial to the success of any agro-processing business. Proper recordkeeping ensures accurate documentation of transactions, operations, and adherence to legal and regulatory standards, promoting transparency and accountability. Effective inventory management is vital for maintaining appropriate stock levels of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished products, which directly affect production efficiency, cost management, and product availability. In financial management, sound practices allow businesses to monitor cash flow, manage costs, evaluate profitability, and secure necessary capital for growth and day-to-day operations.
Moreover, human resource management plays a significant role in building a skilled, motivated workforce by ensuring proper staffing, providing employee training, and adhering to labor regulations. Collectively, these components are essential for the smooth functioning of an agro-processing business, contributing to enhanced operational efficiency, financial health, and sustained growth.
RECORD KEEPING FOR AGRO-PROCESSING
Record-keeping in agro-processing is a fundamental aspect of the food production and manufacturing sector. It ensures traceability, adherence to food safety regulations, operational efficiency, and transparency in converting raw materials into finished goods. Well-maintained records are crucial for managing quality control, inventory, and ensuring compliance with health and safety standards.
Key Areas and Types of Records Kept in Agro-Processing
Below are the key areas and types of records that should be kept in agroprocessing:

1.1. FYM compost

Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle.

Farmyard manure contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P₂O₅ and 0.5% K₂O.

Urine contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35% potassium.

10 to 20 t/ha is applied, but more than 20 t/ha is applied to fodder grasses and vegetables like potato, tomato, sweet potato, carrot, radish, onion etc., respond well to the farmyard manure.

Crops like sugarcane, rice, oranges, banana, mango and coconut respond good to FYM.

Crop residues are valuable natural resources that may be managed to maximize various input use efficiencies. These are a great source of organic materials for improving the soil structure, water holding capacity, the soil's ability to withstand pH variations, increasing the cation exchange capacity, reducing the phosphate fixation, as a storehouse for micronutrients and secondary nutrients especially in organic farming. Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil fauna and microbes, which are the main agents controlling the decomposition and release of mineral nutrients in organic soil ecosystems. Crop leftovers are frequently burned by farmers, especially after harvest, which depletes the soil's nutrient content and microbial population and produces greenhouse gases. Each year, a sizable amount of crop residue is produced and if used efficiently, they may provide partial or full amount of the nutrient budget required under organic farming for the production of annual or perennial crops besides achieving resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

1. Introduction

Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts like straws, stubble, stover etc., that remain in the field after harvesting the economic product. Crop remains from threshing sheds such as groundnut shells, oil cakes, rice husks, corn and sorghum cobs or discarded during crop processing can also be utilized in organic farming. India produces 108.75 MT of wheat, 121.46 MT of rice seed, 30.24 MT of maize seeds, 49.66 MT of millets seeds (jowar, bajra, ragi, and small seed millets), 392.8 MT of sugarcane, 46.11 million bales of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 25.58 MT of pulses and 36.57 MT of oilseed (Agricultural statistics at a glance, 2021).

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

According to Planning Commission Report (2014), India generates about 62 million tons of municipal solid wastes (MSW) every year from urban cities. There has been a significant increase in municipal solid waste generation in India in the last few decades. This is largely due to rapid population growth and economic development in the country (Annepu, 2012). Solid waste management (SWM) has become a major environmental issue because of serious environmental implications like global warming (through green house gases emission) and contamination of toxic pollutants (like heavy metals) in surface and groundwater bodies. Solid waste management is one of the essential services to be provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep urban areas clean. Out of total waste generated in India, only 12.45% waste is scientifically processed and rest is disposed in open dumps (CPCB Report, 2013). Although, incineration of solid wastes is being followed in many places for energy production, composting is considered most environment friendly method of SWM as it promotes recycling of nutrients in crop production.

Abstract
The growing global population has intensified farming practices, increasing the use of fossil fuels and agrochemicals. With limited land and the need to enhance food production, balancing environmental impact, especially carbon footprints, is crucial. Climate-smart mitigation options, with a prime emphasis on crop diversification, can help agriculture adapt to anomalous weather patterns and build resilience. Legumes offer a sustainable solution by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as they produce 5-7 times less gases per unit area compared to other crops. They aid in carbon sequestration, with soil carbon estimates of 7.21 g kg-1 of dry matter, and save fossil energy by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer use, reducing CO2 emissions by 277 kg ha-1 per year. Legumes play a key role in low-emission farming systems due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers. They improve soil health, enhance soil structure, and support carbon sequestration. Integrating legumes into crop rotations reduces the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, legumes can be used in food, feed, and biofuels, lowering reliance on more carbon-intensive resources. Embracing legumes in farming systems promotes sustainability improves soil health, and considerably reduces the overall environmentalimpact of agriculture.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Legumes Sustainability