eChapters

Yield gap of a crop is the difference between the maximum yield under optimum management condition and the average yield achieved by the farmers. Yield under optimum management condition is otherwise known as potential yield of the crop. Because of concerns about global food security problem of malnutrition, there is necessary to minimize the yield gaps in order to enhance food production within limited resources. This will reduce vast majority of undernourished population residing in under-developed countries. Assessment of potential yield and the gap between potential and actual yield is very much necessary before any investment for improving crop production (Nanda and Sahoo 2010).

8.1. Introduction

Sometimes writing reference list could be so confusing since there are a lot of different rules. Each universities or even each faculty use different rule in writing reference list. The different rule of writing reference list is normal because they refer to different style guide. There are a lot of styles guide available. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style; the Chicago Manual of Style; the Oxford Guide to Style are some examples of style guide. Difference reference of style guides chosen will result in totally different way of writing reference list. The most widely accepted style guides in social science is the APA (American Psychological Association) style. In some higher education journals (e.g. Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education) it is stated clearly that author must submit their paper according to APA style. Referencing in a general sense means to give credit to someone for using his or her own ideas or thoughts in a research activity. Referencing helps in gaining the originality of the ideas and thoughts used in the research activity. Failure to reference is treated as disrespect to the original author or writer and seen as a major misconduct in the area of academic research writing. Generally students made the mistake of not mentioning proper referencing at the end of their research projects, essays or any other piece of work. This may lead to cancellation of the written matter. If we do not reference properly the written matter is treated as if it is copied from somewhere. The research paper or material cannot be submitted for further research or reading purpose. We find a lot of data when we search for something.

ABSTRACT

Pests and diseases cause serious economic losses in yield and quality of many cultivated crops. Detection and assessment of their damage symptoms is very crucial to initiate timely control interventions. The conventional scouting technique adopted for assessment of pest and disease in field crops is very laborious and time consuming. Remote sensing may provide a better means to objectively quantify disease stress than visual methods and it can be used to repeatedly collect sample measurements non-destructively and non-invasively. In this paper we report the changes in the reflectance spectra due to pest and disease incidence in three crops viz., groundnut, castor and rice. Canopy reflectance measurements were made with a hand held multispectral radiometer (MSR 16-R, CropScan Inc) which records incoming radiation and light reflectance with up looking and down looking sensors, respectively in 16 pass bands. Data of percent reflectance at each pass band were processed subsequently using the calibration and correlation constants through a mini computer connected to the sensor. A total of 10 samples were selected for each level of pest/disease. At each sampling, six measurements were recorded and the resulting data were averaged. The reflectance spectra varied for different biotic stresses in the three test crops. Higher absorption in the NIR region between 760-1240 nm was observed for healthy plants compared to the diseased plants in all the three crops tested. The spectral signatures from severely defoliated (by semilooper pest) castor crop showed that the percent reflectance in the visible region between 560-710 nm was higher in the defoliated crop compared to healthy and reverse is true in the NIR region between 810-1100 nm. In case of rice, spectral reflectance in the region between 760-1100 nm could differentiate the healthy and brown plant hopper affected plants. Decrease in reflectance in this region was proportion to the number of hoppers per plant. This could be due to collapse of leaf tissues by hopper damage. The higher reflectance in the visible region (560-710 nm) was observed only when the damage is very severe (hopper burn). Different spectral indices viz., SR (simple ratio), NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index), NPCI (normalized total pigment to chlorophyll index), DWSI (disease water stress index) and WBI (water band index) were compared to distinguish healthy and diseased plants. NDVI was found useful in distinguishing semilooper damaged (defoliated) castor crop from healthy castor. All the indices tested were useful to differentiate the rice plants damaged by sap-sucking pest, BPH at different levels of infestation. Incase of groundnut, the differences in the spectral indices between different disease incidence levels were not significant. Results of the present study demonstrated that by comparing the reflectance spectra generated using ground based high-resolution radiometer, it is possible to distinguish healthy and pest/disease affected crops.

Agriculture is increasingly being looked through the angle of environment and sustainability now. On global scale, the move is towards a balanced need for food production and ecological factors. Green revolution made a huge contribution for food security but now we face the following challenges.
1. Since the green revolution, land has witnessed an indiscriminate and prolonged use of chemicals and the strong need for moving away to more eco-friendly farming is felt.
2. We need to promote eco technologies which integrate the principles of ecology in technology development and dissemination. We also need to promote production and use of biological software for sustainable agriculture and food security.
Therefore, the terms like Regenerative Agriculture, Nature base solutions, Agro Ecology, Eco Agriculture, Conservation Agriculture, Organic Farming, Holistic Resource Management, Climate Smart Agriculture, Prakrutik Kheti etc etc have been gaining prominence in policy and funding spaces related to food systems. Global policy floors like the UN Food Systems Summit and the UN Climate and biodiversity conferences have used these terms as bywords for Sustainable Development. Different Names – Eco Agriculture Revolution Encompasses all ! Regenerative Agriculture is defined by many in ways that closely resemble Agro Ecology / Eco Agriculture. Broadly it describes farming, ranching and pastoral practices that stabilize our planet’s climate and carbon cycles by rehabilitating organic matter and microbial activity in the soil, thereby increasing carbon storage, retaining moisture and safeguarding bio diversity and living systems.

Soil regeneration is about bulding or making topsoil. It is a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology is the act/idea of replenishingthe top soil with beneficial nutrients casing natural methods. Time required from inorganic to organic would be about 60 to 200 days depending upon the situation. Once the inorganic fertilization is stopped, following actions facilitate quick conversion:

• Apply Farm yard/Poultry manure available in the farm as a basal dressing.
• Sow 25 kg of multi varietal seeds (MVS) in one acre.
• Allow it to grow up to 60 days.
• Inoculate the soil with the bio-agents like Azospirillum, Phosphobacterium, Pseudomonas flouresens, Trichoderma viride on 30 days after sowing (DAS).
• Incorporate in situ 60 DAS (30 t ha^-1 biomass is generated on 60 DAS) green manures.

Regenerative agriculture is a transformative approach to farming that prioritizes soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, while also increasing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. This holistic method of farming is designed to regenerate the health of the entire ecosystem, rather than just focusing on maximizing food production alone. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can improve soil fertility, enhance water quality, and promote biodiversity, ultimately leading to more resilient and productive farming systems. Regenerative agriculture involves being highly attentive to the needs of the soil, crops, and ecosystem as a whole. Alert farming requires farmers to be vigilant and responsive to changes in weather patterns, soil moisture levels, and crop health, making adjustments as needed to optimize crop yields and minimize environmental impact. This approach involves using advanced technologies, such as precision agriculture and data analytics, to monitor and manage farm operations in real-time, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and respond quickly to emerging challenges. The benefits of regenerative agriculture are numerous. Not only can it improve crop yields and promote sustainable agricultural practices, but it can also enhance ecosystem services, support biodiversity, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can play a critical role in creating a more sustainable food system, one that prioritizes the health of both people and the planet .
4.1 Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) versus Regenerative Agriculture (RA)
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Regenerative Agriculture (RA) are two approaches (Fig. 4.1) to sustainable agriculture that share some similarities, but also have distinct differences

Introduction

Soil fertility is a key factor in successful crop production measures the ability of the soil to supply nutrients to plants. Soil fertility and fertilisers are closely related concepts. Soil fertility acts as a "SOURCE" from which plants can absorb nutrients for maximum yield, while manure acts as a "SOURCE" from which we can continuously absorb various nutrients and also add to the soil. The importance of soil fertility and fertiliser management has been increasingly recognised in all countries to meet the demand for food and other agricultural commodities. Intensive use of fertilisers and cultivation of high yielding varieties has undoubtedly increased food production and reduced food scarcity, but it has also brought with it a host of problems related to soil fertility, soil and water pollution (Sow et al., 2023a). On the other hand, rapid depletion of nutrients due to overuse, widespread N, P, K, and S deficiency, along with micronutrient deficiencies, especially Zn and Boron, have been observed in many soils.

Abstract
Regional approaches to progressive agriculture involve tailored strategies and practices that address the unique agricultural needs and challenges of specific regions. This chapter explores the various regional strategies for advancing agriculture, focusing on how local conditions, cultures, and resources influence agricultural practices and innovations. It examines case studies from diverse regions to highlight successful approaches and adaptations in progressive agriculture. The chapter covers key areas such as climate adaptation, resource management, technology adoption, and policy frameworks. By analyzing regional successes and challenges, the chapter provides insights into how regional approaches can drive sustainable agricultural development and enhance food security globally.
Keywords: Regional agriculture, progressive agriculture, climate adaptation, resource management, technology adoption, policy frameworks, sustainable development, case studies, food security.

Expanding on the importance of understanding monsoons from a regional perspective, Chapter 4, “Regional Phenomena Exerting Influence on Monsoons in Different Regions,” takes a closer look at the unique fingerprints that specific geographical features and localized climate dynamics leave on these vital weather systems around the world. While Chapter 3 provided the grand narrative of globalscale influencers, this chapter delves into the intricate details of how monsoons are fine-tuned and often dramatically altered by the characteristics of the land and oceans they interact with on a regional level. Consider, for instance, the colossal impact of the Tibetan Plateau’s summer heating on the Indian Summer Monsoon. The intense solar radiation absorbed by this vast elevated landmass creates a powerful upper-level heat source, driving a strong low-pressure system that acts like a vacuum, pulling in the moistureladen winds from the Indian Ocean that deliver the life-sustaining rains to the subcontinent. Similarly, in North America, the development of the North American Monsoon Anticyclone, a large high-pressure system aloft, plays a crucial role in steering moisture from both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico into the arid Southwest, transforming parched landscapes into vibrant green during the summer months. We will also explore phenomena like the Saharan Heat Low, a thermal low-pressure system over the vast desert that is instrumental in drawing in the rain-bearing southwesterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean to fuel the West African Monsoon, a lifeline for numerous nations. Furthermore, the chapter will examine the regional oceanic influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole and how the temperature differences between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean can significantly modulate the strength and distribution of rainfall during the Indian monsoon and in neighboring regions. Through a series of regional case studies, this chapter will illuminate the diverse ways in which local geography, land surface characteristics, and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulations act as critical modifiers of global monsoon patterns. This detailed exploration underscores the necessity of understanding these regional nuances for accurate forecasting, effective water resource management, and the development of tailored strategies to cope with the inherent variability of monsoons in different parts of our planet.

Introduction

Engineered nanoparticles are a group of products that are defined by their size, ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Due to the smaller size, the physio-chemical properties of nano particles become very different from those of the same material in a larger form. Total production of nano-materials is expected to increase considerably in the near future. Nanotoxicology is yet another emerging field of science dealing with the effects of nano-devices and engineered nano-particles on living organisms. It has been observed that the materials in nano-dimensions react totally different in comparison to their existence in micro or macro sizes.

The following graph is a visual representation of how plant growth and/or yield is affected by nutrient concentrations

Introduction 
Crop-weather models are sophisticated constructs, meticulously designed to replicate the dynamic and intricate interplay among atmospheric conditions, complex soil processes, nuanced plant physiology, and the decisive influence of human management interventions. The agricultural system is a prime example of a highly interconnected and non-linear system, where changes in one component can ripple through and affect many others, often with time lags and feedback loops. To truly comprehend, effectively design, rigorously develop, and clearly communicate the inner workings of such multifaceted simulations, relying solely on dense textual descriptions or abstract mathematical equations can prove daunting and often insufficient. This is precisely where relationship diagrams emerge as indispensable tools. At their core, relationship diagrams are powerful visual representations that translate the abstract scientific concepts and mathematical formulations embedded within crop-weather models into intuitive graphical formats. They are essentially the architectural blueprints and flowcharts of these complex systems, allowing us to see, rather than just read, how various components of the agricultural ecosystem interact. Imagine trying to understand the intricate wiring of a skyscraper or the precise movements of a symphony orchestra purely from a written description; diagrams provide the essential visual mapping that brings clarity and coherence to complexity. These diagrams are not mere aesthetic additions; they are fundamentally required because of the inherent complexity and interdisciplinary nature of crop modeling. They bridge critical gaps: Bridging Disciplinary Gaps: Agricultural system modeling brings together experts from diverse fields – agronomists who understand plant responses, meteorologists who provide weather insights, soil scientists who grasp soil physics and chemistry, and computer scientists who implement the models.

Abstract

Production technology has been worked out for crops and several inputs have been recommended which are to be applied in proper quantity at most suitable time to get the maximum return. Nutrition in the form of fertilizers is a must. However, injudicious use of agro-chemicals has resulted in diseases called ‘iatrogenic plant diseases’. Under the circumstances it is important to know the relationship between soil nutrients and plant pathogens which are causing the diseases of economic importance. Author has given adequate emphasis to micronutrients as at a very minor quantity they reduce the disease to an acceptable level. He has also discussed in detail about all the major and minor nutrients required by the plants and how their deficiency or over doses affect the plant pathogens and in turn the diseases.

Keywords:  Soil nutrients, plant pathogens, diseases, relationship

Introduction

Climate change is a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures. Eleven years from 1995-2006 rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850). The 100-year linear trend (1906-2005) of 0.74 [0.56 to 0.92] °C is larger than the corresponding trend of 0.6 [0.4 to 0.8] °C (1901-2000) and over the 21st century average temperature of earth surface is likely to go up by an additional of 1.8-4°C (IPCC, 2007). This temperature increase can be attributed to the altered energy balance of the climate system resulting from changes in atmospheric concentrations of the green house gases (GHGs). Among the principal components of radiative forcing of climate change, CO₂ has the highest positive forcing leading to warming of climate. CO₂ has the least global warming potential among the major green house gases but due to its much higher concentration in the atmosphere; it is the major contributor towards global warming and climate change. Agriculture sector in India contributes 28% of the total GHG emissions (NATCOM, 2004). The global average from agriculture is only 13.5% (IPCC, 2007). In future, the percentage emissions from agriculture in India are likely to be smaller due to relatively much higher growth in emissions in energy-use transport and industrial sectors. The emissions from agriculture are primarily due to methane emissions from rice fields, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals and nitrous oxides from application of manures and fertilizers to agricultural soils (NATCOM, 2004).

Introduction

In India, the history of agriculture dates embarrassed to Indus natural depression Civilization Era and even before that in some locations of Southern India. Today, India ranks more familiarized in surface area output. Agriculture and related sectors like biology and fisheries accounted for 137% of the value concerning 500^th of the manpower in 2013. The livelihood buildup of agriculture to India’s value is steady breakdown with the country’s broad-based livelihood growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest and highest livelihood across and plays a strong role within the all-inclusive socioeconomic attachment of India. India exported $38 billion service of scientific discipline on-line symbols, authentic it the seventh larger scientific discipline business person used to and therefore the sixth larger web businessperson, plenty of its agriculture exports serve developing and developed nations as in 2013. Indian agricultural/horticultural foods squarely determined and exported to further more than 120 countries, primarily within the geographical area, environmental region, SAARC countries, the EU and United States. As per FAO (2010), agriculture statistics India is that the world’s larger agent of in great quantity of fruits and vegetables, milk, spices, base crops that as jute, staples as millets and vegetable oil seed. India is that the further larger agent of wheat and rice in the world.

India stratified within the world’s five larger producers of over 80^th of scientific order ending things, as well as in large numbers banker’s invoice crops feels affection for unusual crops including cotton, in 2010. India is one in every of the world’s five larger producers of farm animal including dairy products and plenty of meat, with one in every of the quickest advanced rates, as of 2011.

On August 6, 1945, the most dreadful among the weapons of mass destruction – the atom bomb – was dropped in the civilian area of Hiroshima. Three days later, another atom bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. In July 1955, Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein issued their famous manifesto seeking the abolition of nuclear weapons and appealing to all inhabitants of Planet Earth:
 
Remember your humanity, and forget the rest. If you can do so, the way is open to a new Paradise; if you cannot, there lies before you the risk of universal death.

In 1957, the Russell-Einstein Manifesto led to the birth of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, an organisation devoted to the causes of ending the nuclear peril and reminding scientists of their ethical responsibility for the consequences of their discoveries, particularly in the area of nuclear threat to human survival.

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people. My first meeting with himwas when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R & D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitationfrom his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. Later, I was fortunate to have many more meetings and interactions with him. In fact, during myfrequent visits to Delhi as the Chairman of National Agri Technology – nrdc, I would call at his residence in the evenings at Rajaji Marg to discuss different developments and get his guidance. It soon became clear to his efficient Secretaries to inform me in advance and arrange a meeting with him whenever he would visit Anand or Vadodara. In one such meeting at theCircuit House in Vadodara, I took my 8 year old Grand Daughteralongwith me. He enquired briefly about the progress in my work in Bio Technology and Agriculture in the first 2 minutes but later turned his entire attention to the little girl. It was amazing the way he interacted and talked with much love and

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

“Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over). Earlier, I did have some interactions with Dr. Kurien. When at GSFC Ltd., we had introduced Nylon – 6 Engineering plastic. I had discussed with my team of Research and Application Development Engineers about multi layer packaging of dairy products where Nylon – 6 can have a good market potential which we used to discuss with Amul. Also, our work on Bio Fertilizers and Bio Pesticides had indirect interest to them. So, when suddenly I was offered the position of Vice Chancellor of GAU and was in a dilemma, I went for his advice. After all, he had held the same position earlier (in addition to AMUL). I explained about the offer and said that I was not too sure about accepting it. He, on the contrary, encouraged me to accept it saying “you can do a lot !” I just murmured,” But I am not an agriculture graduate. I am a Chemical Engineer!” To which he jokingly said – “So ?. I am a Metallurgical Engineer. And now I am a Dudhwala!”

"Where is your Dhoti, Dr. Mehta ?” Dr. Varghese Kurien surprised me as I entered his office at IRMA (Institute of Rural Management Anand). That was April 2000, soon after I had taken over as the Vice Chancellor of the erstwhile Gujarat Agricultural University (GAU) and had decided to call on him during my visit to the Anand Campus. (At that time GAU was the largest University in the Asia with four main campuses – Dantiwada, Anand, Junagadh and Navsari and about 65 experimental farms / stations spreaded all over).