eChapters

1.1     Forest Resources
    
1.2     Uses of Forest
    
1.3     Deforestation and its Effects
    
1.4     Water Resources
        
    1.4.1 Water Conflicts
    1.4.2 Dams Conflicts
    
1.5    Drought
    1.5.1 Regions of Drought in the World
    1.5.2 Effects of Drought
    
1.6     Flood
    
1.7    Environmental Effects of Mineral Resources
    
1.8    Food Rseources
    1.8.1 Technological Improvements in Food Production
    1.8.2 Environmental Issues Related to Increased Production
    
1.9    Overgrazing and its Effects
    
1.10    Impacts of Intensive Farming on Soil and Water Resources
    
1.11    Effects of Agricultural Chemicals on the Environment
    
1.12    Energy Sources
    
1.13    Waterlogging
    
1.14    Land Resources
    
1.15    Land Degradation
    
1.16    Soil Erosion
    1.16.1 Types of Erosion
    
1.17     Desertification
    1.17.1 Causes of Desertification
    1.17.2 Effects of Desertification
    
1.18    Conservation of Natural Resources
    1.18.1 Conflicts
    1.18.2 Challenges and Methods

Climate Change has emerged as one of the most serious environmental concerns of recent times. The most imminent climatic change is increase in atmospheric temperature due to increased levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs). Because of increasing concentrations of the greenhouse gases in atmosphere, there is much concern about future changes in the climate system viz., Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and Cryosphere. Direct or indirect effects on the society linked sectors like water, forestry, agriculture, animal agriculture, fisheries, land and marine biodiversity and health due to climate change/variability are many-fold and economic impact of climate change is enormous. The recurrent drought and desertification threaten seriously the livelihood of over 1.2 billion people who depend on land for most of their needs.

The term soil organic matter (SOM) includes any material that is produced originally by soil organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and undergoes decomposition process. At any point in time, it consists of an array of materials, ranging from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus (Fig.1.1). Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissues. Plant residues contain 60 - 90 per cent of moisture and the remaining dry matter consists mostly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, with smaller amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Though present in small amounts, these nutrients are of great significance from the standpoint of soil fertility.

1.1    General Circulation of the Atmosphere
    
1.2    World Climates
    
1.3    World Climate Classification by Köppen’s method
    
1.4    Climatic Classification over India
    
1.5    Asian Summer Monsoon and Rainfall Distribution
    
1.6    The Indian Monsoon
    Features of monsoon
    Monsoon circulation
    Onset of monsoon
    Withdrawal of monsoon
    Southwest monsoon rainfall
    Active phase of monsoon
    Break monsoon conditions
    Winter monsoon

1.7    Causes for Failure of Monsoon
    
    Prediction of onset of monsoon rainfall

1.8    Spatial Distribution of Weather Parameters over India
    Rainfall
    Temperature
    Humidity
    Sunshine and Radiation
    Wind speed

1.9    Famines in India
    
1.10    Historical Evidences of Droughts
    
1.11    Distribution of Drought Prone Regions over the Globe
    1.11.1    Occurance of drought in different countries
    
1.12    Distribution of Drought Prone Regions in India
    
1.13    Weather Phenomena Associated with Droughts
    
1.14    Effect of Droughts on Natural Resources
    1.14.1    Surface water resources
    1.14.2    Groundwater sources
    
1.15    Impact of Latest Droughts on Crop Production in India
    
1.16    Economic Impacts of Droughts in India
    
1.17    Economic Impacts of Droughts in other Nations
        
References

The aim of this book is to further strengthen the knowledge of readers on management of disasters so that they are better prepared to cope with more frequently occurring natural and manmade disasters.

The process that helps us to face disasters effectively is commonly known as disaster preparedness.  When a disaster strikes, it affects us directly and immediately. While as the government, international agencies such as United Nations, Red Cross Society, non government organizations, like Ramakrishna Mission, OXFAM, CARE, resident welfare associations in urban areas and panchayats in rural areas assist us when faced with disasters the community, invariably remains the first responders. Hence, the individuals as a part of community should prepare adequately to prevent, face and respond to disasters effectively. History has  shown that where communities have prepared adequately to confront disasters, losses to life and property have been less and environment could be protected. People living in an area may be prone to more than one type of disaster. For example Kutch District of Gujarat is vulnerable to floods, drought, cyclones and to earthquakes. Such an area is called ‘multiple hazard’ zone.

Introduction

Landslides are simply defined as mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope and have come to include broad range of motions whereby falling, sliding and flowing under the influence of gravity dislodges earth material. They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall cause heavy landslides, that block the flow of river for quite sometime.

Introduction

Human civilization used to undergo several form of disasters throughout its life history. Most of such events are unpredictable, sudden and short in duration, and such events can easily classifiable as either natural (e.g. cyclones, earth quake, natural forest fires and tsunami) or manmade such as spread of toxic chemicals (e.g. Bhopal disaster 1984), nuclear explosions, civil war, diseases (Minamata, itaiitai, etc.). However, climate change is a real time prolonged disaster which is caused by both natural (caused by variation in solar irradiance, variations in orbital parameters of earth, volcanic activities, natural forest fire, methane release from thawing of permafrost from ocean floor, natural wetlands and cattle) and anthropogenic means (by greenhouse gases resulted from human activities-all kinds of combustion, industrial production of greenhouse gases and agricultural water lodging activities such as paddy cultivation and artificial wet lands, and deforestation).

Introduction

It is well known that, over 50% of requirement of food for the entire humanity is obtained from just three crops- rice, maize and wheat though 150 crops are commercialized globally. Ethnobotanically, over 7000 plants species are cultivated or harvested from the wild which represent immense agro-biodiversity. Most of these species are under exploited but have the potential for contributing to food security, health (nutritional/medicinal), income generation and environmental services. Examples include little millets which provide calcium and iron and vitamins like niacin and sulphur containing amino acids, having more fiber than rice and wheat. Some other species which have in the recent past contributed to income generation in Indian arid zone include ber, anola, karonda and gonda. Likewise the perennial grasses in this area are not only source of nutritious fodder but also the grains e.g. gramana (Panicum antidotale) are consumed during famine. They have acquired importance being alternative sources of income as also alternate life support system during crisis. They often have neutraceutical, medicinal uses or often multiple uses. Demand for traditional food in large multi-ethnic cities and metros have brought these species into sharp focus, Hence, these are being viewed now as potential candidate for diversification in the cropping system, conservation of bio-diversity, enhancing the limits of green revolution even during climate change and finally as provider of molecules for curing various ailments of men and animals.

Introduction

Rain fed agroecosystem occupies 68% of India’s cultivated area and supports 40% of the human beings and 65% of the livestock population. It produces 44% of food requirements, thus has and will continue to play a critical role in India’s agriculture (Singh et al. 2004). Besides their well established role in agriculture, livestock have crucial role in food security and as risk aversion mechanism for sustaining family, whenever there is crop failure. Indian hot arid zone which is about 12% of total geographical area of the landmass of 0.32 million km2 has maximum covering in western Rajasthan i.e. 61% of the total area whereas the other areas in arid region are available in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka accounting for 20, 5, 4, 7 and 3% of hot arid area whereas the cold arid area of 8.4 million ha lies in the state of Jammu & Kashmir covering the Leh and Ladakh region.

Over the past decades climate change and climate related disaster risks have become more important than ever. The effects of climate change are unprecedented today and thus pose serious risks for human wellbeing, livelihoods and life-supporting systems. They also present serious challenges to society, in addition, increased climate variability significantly undermine the socio-economic development and environment. The consequences of climatic change, such as increase in frequency and extent of droughts, floods, cyclones, mudslides and avalanches have impacts on all sectors of economy including water, agriculture, fisheries, health, forestry, transport, tourism and energy sectors. Amongst these sectors, the agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors to impacts of climate change, which can have multiplicative effects on other sectors, as well as the economy and overall human being. The projected climate change towards warming may affect not only the crop cultivation but also on agro-climatic conditions for growing pasture vegetation, forming of feed stocks in pastures and conditions for grazing livestock. Favourable conditions for grazing livestock are determined, on the one hand, by sufficient amount of forage in pastures and on the other, by the extreme weather conditions that restrict the use of these fodders.

Climate change is one of the most serious and long standing challenges facing livestock around the world and has moved up to the top of agenda among scientific community, civil society, business and government. Majority of scientific experts around the world believe that the climate change is already occurring by human activities, by use of fossil fuel, deforestation and agricultural practices, livestock rearing and that the developing countries in particular would be more vulnerable to the continuously changing climate. Rise in temperature due to climate change is likely to affect livestock production and health. Large deltas and low lying coastal areas would be inundated by a rise in sea level along with increased precipitation intensity. (DFID, 2004).Major contributors to the climate change are the man-made greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide and hydroflurocarbons in the atmosphere. The accumulation of gas is causing the climatic change globally, as evident from the increased frequency of floods, droughts, cyclones and torrential rains in the recent past. The green house gases (GHGs) emission from agriculture sector alone accounts for 25.5% of global emission and over 60% from anthropogenic sources (FAO,2009)

Global warming is the most prominent environmental issue across the world. It is caused by the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere and leads to a phenomenon widely known as ‘greenhouse effect’. Amongst various sources of greenhouse effect, agriculture is considered a major contributor primarily through the emission of greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide.

Abstract 

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world . India ranks 1st among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) & value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production & offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified .Scarcity of water resources and growing ofm competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scare area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient & effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving ,irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system etc) and agronomic & soil manipulation (seed priming\ seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. 

• Introduction
• Characteristics of Management Information System
• Management Information Systems Advantage
• Outputs of a Management Information System

Abstract

Soil acidity poses a great problem for crop production due to very poor fertility status and nutrient imbalances in eastern and north eastern region and hence, it needs a special attention to address such acidity problems in relation to crop production. The integrated nutrient management system for the maintenance of soil fertility, sustainable agricultural productivity and improving profitability through the judicious and efficient use of mineral fertilizers especially secondary and micronutrients, organic matters, green manures, bio-fertilizers in acid soils. Rainwater harvesting, efficient storage of excess rainwater and subsequent uses as supplemental irrigation especially in the areas of rainfed situations as well as selection of crops and cropping systems in different acid soils region need to be developed. The management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils can be made either by the addition of cost-effective lime or liming materials to counteract the abnormalities of soils by raising pH as the first step and subsequently by modifying agricultural practices and applying balanced fertilizers including limiting nutrients viz. S, B, Mo and Zn at optimal levels based on soil test values for maximum crop production.

Heat or thermal stress occurs when it becomes increasingly difficult for dairy cow to maintain a normal core body temperature of 101.5 to 102.8° F (rectal temp.). The thermo neutral or comfort zone (TNZ) for cow is at an environmental temperature of 41 to 77° F. Within the TNZ, heat production from normal metabolic functions is about equal to the heat loss from the body and maintaining a normal body temperature is relatively easy. Extent of heat stress can be measured by the Temperature Humidity Index (THI). A THI level above 75 is considered stressful for dairy animals. Two sources of heat impact the cow as the environmental temperature and the heat produced internally from basal nutrient metabolism. Heat produced from nutrient metabolism is a lesser factor than environmental heat sources. However, as milk production and feed intake increase, more heat from nutrient metabolism is produced aggravating any heat stress being incurred from environmental sources. Therefore, higher milk producing cow will be more affected by heat stress than low milk producing or dry cow. 

Introduction

The area under salt-affected soils in India is estimated to be 6.73 Mha spread over a number of states across the country. This 6.73 million ha are lying barren or produce very uneconomical yields of crops due to excessive accumulation of salts. These soils are agriculturally unproductive because of the high content of soluble salts which had harmful effects on plant growth due to moisture stress and toxicity/deficiency of some of the ions and the exchangeable sodium ions in clay complex lead to the unfavorable physical conditions of for the plant growth and water movement (Bhumla 1977). Saline and sodic soils have excess concentration of either soluble or exchangeable sodium, calcium and magnesium primarily in the form of chlorides and sulphates. Salt affected areas an expected to increase with spread of waterlogging and salinity due to increase in canal irrigation, and intensive exploitation of poor quality ground waters for agriculture in non canal commands. Certain states like Rajasthan and Haryana located in the western part of the country are endowed with 84 and 62% of poor quality ground waters, respectively. Continuous use of such waters for irrigation to agricultural crops is bound to increase the problem of salinity and sodicity in India (Yadav 1989; Minhas and Bajwa 2001). Introduction of irrigation without making proper provision for drainage is the major cause for the development of salinity in canal commands.It is severe on irrigated lands of the dry zone. It reduces crop yield and in severe cases causes complete abandonment of agriculture (Joshi and Dhir 1989; Joshi et al. 2000; Mahesh Kumar et al. 2016). The present paper deals with extent, causes, characteristics and management options of these soils for sustainability of agriculture in the area.

Introduction

Climate is the primary determinant of agricultural productivity. Plant systems, and hence crop yields, are influenced by many environmental factors such as moisture and temperature, may act either synergistically or antagonistically with other factors in determining yields (Waggoner, 1983). In the recent years, climatic change/variability is a biggest challenging factor that affects agriculture in India and elsewhere and concern has been expressed by world community regarding the potential effects of climate change on agricultural productivity. Climate change is expected to influence crop production, hydrologic balances, input supplies and other components of agricultural systems. Agricultural systems are managed ecosystems. The climate change induced atmospheric stress will be the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants. Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, heavy metal toxicity, oxidative stress and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Drought, extreme temperatures and oxidative stress are interconnected and affect the water relations of a plant on the cellular as well as whole plant level causing specific as well as unspecific reactions (Beck et al., 2007). This leads to a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that adversely affect plant growth and productivity (Wang et al., 2001).

ABSTRACT
Methanogenesis is an important biogeochemical process takes place in anaerobic ecological sites. It is the last step of terminal electron accepting process of anaerobic respiration. Methanogens synthesise CH₄ using acetate and CO₂ as precursor molecules. Former types of methanogens are referred as acetoclastic methanogens and the later ones as hydrogenotrophic methanogens. After biogenesis of CH₄, it is emitted to atmosphere and causes global warming. In aerobic ecosystem CH₄ is oxidised by methanotrophs to CO₂ a less global warming molecule. However, in anoxic environment CH4 acts as an electron donor and interacts with various electron acceptors. Methane modulates denitrification, Fe reduction, SO₄ reduction and organic matter decomposition. Manuscript elucidates methanogenesis and highlights the pathways of interaction between methanogenesis and cycling of electron acceptors in various anaerobic ecosystems in relation to global C and N balance.

ABSTRACT
Methanogenesis is a ubiquitous process primarily encountered in anaerobic environments. Methanogens are a group of diverse obligate anaerobic bacteria that produce methane from complex organic matter. Despite their differences in morphological characters and habitat, they show coherence in terms of methane-producing metabolic activity. Being distinctive from all other classical prokaryotes, these are grouped under another kingdom of Archea. Other distinctions of the members are based on their unique cell wall structures and membrane components, as well as differences in their highly conserved gene sequences. Methanogens likely owe their cosmopolitan status to their unique mode of energy metabolism of methane generation. They are active in various ecological niches, from rumens of animals to submarine volcanic vents, sewage digestors and landfills. Methanogenic bacteria are abundant in habitats where high affinity electron acceptors are negligible. Methane fermentation involves bacteria that obtain energy by catalysing anaerobically degradable organic matter to CH₄ and CO₂ by consuming H₂, CO₂, and low-carbon organic acids as their substrates. The gaseous products of methanogenesis are greenhouse gases, thus are major contributors to global warming. Methanogens could be used to produce renewable carbon-neutral energy substitute, biogas. Methane cycling archaea play a major role in global methane production as energy for the future.