eChapters

Introduction

The resource conservation technologies (RCTs) is primarily focussed on resource savings through minimal tillage, ensuring soil nutrients and moisture conservation through crop residues and growth of cover crops, and adoption of spatial and temporal crop sequencing. These practices have long been practised by the farmers in the Indo Gangetic Plains (IGP) but it got eroded in recent times due to various geo-socio economic- political reasons. This region (10.5 million ha) comprises of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and have major share in production of rice and wheat due to adoption of green revolution technologies followed by area expansion. It has been reported that rice-wheat system has strained the natural resources of this region (Swarup and Singh, 1989; Kumar and Yadav, 1993; Lal et al., 2004). In present scenario there is little scope to meet future target by earlier approaches like area expansion and intensive use of natural resources. Therefore, RCTs can be regarded as energy, water and labour efficient system to sustain soil health and production environment and produce more at less cost (Jat et al., 2012; Gathala et al., 2011b).

Major emphasis is given upon the RCTs components like zero/reduced tillage, direct seeded rice, crop residue management and crop diversification. However, other RCTs like site specific nutrient management, leaf colour chart, laser land leveller, nutrient use efficient genotypes, integrated crop and pest management provide options to the farmers as per their resource endowment.

The chapter focuses on presenting the outcomes and analysis of the research, aiming to offer ample information for reaching accurate conclusions. Within this chapter, tables and models are frequently employed to reinforce the textual content. The discussion section plays a crucial role in interpreting the research results appropriately and establishing connections with other pertinent studies.

The distribution characteristics of the variable Age (x1 ) reveals that the respondents’ ages range from a minimum of 27 to a maximum of 71. The average age is 48.675, suggesting that the majority of respondents fall into the middle-age category. The standard deviation is 11.574, indicating the degree of variability in the ages. Furthermore, the coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.779 percent, indicating a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

The distribution pattern of the variable Family size (x3 ) shows that the family size ranges from a minimum person of 3 to a maximum of 10 persons. The average family size is 10.125 persons. The standard deviation is 1.397. The coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.882 percent which indicates a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

The Review of literature is a critical summary of published academic research and other sources on a particular topic or research question. It involves identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant research studies, books, articles, and other sources to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known and not known about the topic.

A good review of literature should be well-structured, focused, and provide a balanced and objective analysis of the existing literature. The following are the key elements of a literature review:

1. Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and highlight the importance of the research question.

2. Search Strategy: The search strategy should outline the databases and search terms used to identify relevant literature.

3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: The inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined to ensure that only relevant studies are included in the review.

This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives a knowledge of what others have found out in the related f ield of study. In any scientific investigation or research a comprehensive presentation of review of literature is a statutory requirement. Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones, also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature of the present study is based on the major concepts related to the f ield of investigation. As direct references on all the item are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated in this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use.

Review of literature has been organized with a view to provide hard evidences as to clinically justify the reasons, logic, and contemplation leading to heuristically infer the different echelons of resilience issues.This is also catered to isolate the apparently less attempted genre of resilience study and analysis. Climate change, uncertainty, decline of soil organic carbon, fatigued genes on land, loss of biodiversity and fragile ecology of society have only been some of myriad of factors causing the loss of resilience, from ecology and from society as well.

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

A thorough examination of relevant literature is crucial in any scientific investigation and research. Apart from identifying previous work conducted in the problem area or the specific field of study, the primary function of a literature review is to provide insights into the methods and procedures used, while also establishing a foundation for interpreting the findings. A literature review involves a comprehensive and critical assessment of prior research, offering a summary and overview of a particular research area. This allows readers to understand why the current research program is being pursued. A well-executed literature review delves into the reasons behind selecting a specific research question, integrating and evaluating previous studies, and demonstrating how they relate to the proposed research program. It is important to present all sides of the argument in a clear manner to avoid bias, while also highlighting areas of agreement and disagreement among the existing literature.

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a concise overview of various studies and writings related to migration. This overview serves to enhance our understanding of the significance and purpose of our current research. Some relevant reviews have been categorized and presented under the following sub headings:

A brief description of IGMC is given in Para 6.6 with details of the canal sections. Here an attempt is made to review the hydraulic performance of the Main Canal.

7B.1 Study of Flow Characteristic of the Main Canal

The main canal is designed for a maximum discharge of 524 m3/s at head i.e. at Km. 0. Large of number of branches, distributaries and minors off take from the main canal at different location all along the canal. These are shown in the L- section, Figure 7B.1 and a statement off taking canals is given Table 7B.1. Many distributaries such as lift canals have been planned subsequently. Also discharges of few off taking channels have been changed. A clear and updated data are not readily available. So data available are indicated in the Table and plotted in the L - section. A half bottom plan of the canal is also shown in Figure 7B.2

This chapter reviews the research work done in the fields related to the objectives of the study. In any scientific investigation or research a comprehensive review of relevant literature is very essential. Its main function apart from determining the work done before concerning the problem area i.e. area of investigation, it provides an insight into the methods and procedures and create a basis for interpretation of findings. As direct references on all the item are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use.
2.1. Ecosystem Services and Conservation Agriculture
Acharya, S. K. and Chatterjee, R. (2019) found that conservation agriculture may help in re-building agro-ecology by maintaining carbon sequestration, maintaining soil health, checking soil erosion and ground water depletion, energy balance, mitigating climate change related problems through maintaining ecosystem services.
Ayyam, V., Palanivel, S., and Chandrakasan, S. (2019) stated that CA embraces higher rates of carbon sequestration, organic matter accumulation, soil erosion reduction, and its associated improvement in soil biological properties. Additionally, there is reduction in greenhouse gas emission as a result of CA. Adoption of CA-based farming practices particularly in areas facing notable land degradation and depleting natural resources delineates a win-win scenario due to improved crop yield and trends of increasing soil fertility and scope for climate change adaptation to recuperate degraded soils and improve ecosystem services.

Introduction

This chapter reviews literature related to the current study on Quality of Work Life (QWL). Scrutiny of the available literature is of great value in gaining insight into the research problem. It is beneficial for strengthening the research problem. As there are fewer studies on QWL in the university libraries in Kerala, the works reported in other places were also reviewed. Hence, the available studies related to the topic are exhaustively reviewed. The review covers studies on the subject made at the regional, national, and international levels.

2.1 Introduction

The journey through the research work and the resultant publication of research articles, review notes and books by innumerable authors in the field of Information Technology, and Communication, Library Sciences, Social Media and Popular Culture has been the basis for this chapter: The Review of Literature. The following is a report of how and what lead to arrive at the objectives, hypotheses and methods of researching this field and the concerns of the researchers and the authors. Reading innumerable articles, research papers, and books helped in writing this literature review strengthened the knowledge about the topic of this study. It has been of immense use to learn essential concepts, research methods, and experimental techniques used in this field. Another benefit of the extensive reading of relevant literature has been the knowledge and understanding of how to present the insights, research findings, and claims discussed and explained scientifically and systematically. Through this reading exercise, the topic of the research and its objectives were finalized. 

The excessive and imbalanced use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the last few decades to meet the challenges of growing food demand of Worlds population has led to serious consequences of soil and water pollution, leaching of toxic nitrate into ground water and volatilization of nitrogen oxides into the environment. Therefore, judicious management of nitrogen in the environment is very much essential in the development of more productive and sustainable agriculture. Rapid declining of non-renewable energy sources viz. petroleum products, natural gas as well as energy crisis in the recent days, release of several pollutants during production of fertilizer N has also necessitated the development of alternative and/or supplemental technologies to obtain the fertilizer N for crop production.

The role of leguminous plants in improving the soil fertility is known for centuries. The nitrogen uptake in legumes by some unknown process was demonstrated through agronomic experiments by J.B Boussingault in 1838, which was opposed by Liebig and others. The presence of bacteria in the roots nodules of legumes was observed by P.G Lachmann (1858). M. Woronin (1866) further examined and observed them to be rod-shaped and motile.

Under natural conditions, the largest source of labile carbon (C) inputs to the soil is root exudates (Bertin et al., 2003; Hutsch et al., 2002; Kuzyakov 2002). Roots exude a variety of low-molecular weight organic compounds, including sugars, amino acids, organic acids (Bertin et al., 2003), but also contain hormones, vitamins, amino compounds, phenolics and sugar phosphate esters (Uren, 2001). These compounds are rapidly metabolized; for example, Hutsch et al., (2002) found that 64–86% of maize root exudates were respired by soil microorganisms. The effect of root exudates depends on the distance that they can diffuse away from rhizoplane (Gupta and Mukerji, 2002).

Abstract

The rhizomicrobiome plays a vital role in maintaining plant health and is highly influenced by the root exudates of the host plant. Plants select a subset of microbes at different stages of their development, and determine the microbiome community composition in its immediate vicinity presumably for specific functions. The rhizomicrobiome is composed of diversified microbial community with specific functions and is highly influenced by the plant type, soil type and environmental conditions. The rhizomicrobiome communities apart from promoting plant growth also elicit induced systemic tolerance to salinity and drought in stressed plants. Bacterial communities producing 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase modulate stress ethylene in plants and alleviate the effects of abiotic stress and increases plant adaptability to stressed environment.

Rhizosphere

The term Rhizosphere was introduced by the German scientist, Hiltner in 1904. It is region of the soil, which is subjected to the influence of plant roots. It is the unique environment under the influence of plant roots. The roots of plants are not only involved in the uptake of mineral nutrients and water for plant growth, but they also release a wide range of organic compounds in the surrounding soil.

Abstract

Soil is the natural growth media for living plants and microbes, and rhizosphere is niche for a group of soil microorganisms inhabiting around the plant root zone. The warmed and humid agro-climatic conditions of the area aggravate A. flavus contamination and aflatoxin production in maize grains from field to storage. In this article aflatoxin contamination in maize, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere microbes against toxigenic A. flavus, through fungi, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere bacteria against toxigenic A. flavus, bacterization of stored maize seeds for aflatoxin control and inhibition of aflatoxin production in stored maize seed with rhizobacteria has been discussed in detail.

To a soil microorganism, the rhizosphere is like a lush oasis in the desert. In comparison to near-starvation conditions of the bulk soil, the rhizosphere is the place where nutrients are plentiful and microorganisms flourish. The term rhizosphere was first used by Hiltner in 1904 to describe the zone of soil under the influence of roots. The rhizosphere can extend more than 5 mm from the root and is the area of increased microbial activity due to exudation of low molecular weight compounds from root cells. The rhizoplane is the surface of plant root and any strongly adhering soil particles. The microbial populations that colonize the interior of the root and from intimate associations with the root are considered endophytes.

Introduction

The rhizosphere plays a pivotal role in the boundary where biological and chemical activities profoundly impact various landscape and global-scale processes. Understanding these processes is crucial for maintaining planetary health and sustaining the organisms inhabiting it (Morrissey et al., 2004). To enhance the yield potential of staple food crops, leveraging the root systems of plants becomes essential to meet the anticipated doubling of global food demand in the future (Gewvin, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Amidst the challenges posed by global climate change and the burgeoning global population, there’s an increasing need for greater productivity from cultivated food, animal feed, and fibers on less favorable and often infertile lands—conditions already prevalent in many developing nations (Tilman et al., 2002). Advancing our understanding and control of rhizosphere processes stands as a critical frontier in research for the next decade.

The field is ploughed once and harrowed twice or thrice until the soil becomes well puddle. Beds are made slightly raised of 1 – 1.5 m in width and conveniently large in size and drainage channels in between the beds. The total area of nursery required to plant one hectare of land is 20 cents (800 m2 ). This method is suited where assured irrigation facilities are available. The beds should not be allowed to dry because they develop cracks and the seedlings will get spoiled. This method keeps down the weeds in the nursery. Seedlings are transplanted at 21-25 and 25-30 days age for SDV and MDV, respectively. Sparse sowing is recommended in case of hybrid rice. One kg of hybrid seed is sown in one cent area of nursery. This helps in good tillering and robust seedlings and makes it possible to transplant single seedling per hill. Seedlings are planted at 20-25 days.