eChapters

Introduction

Conservation of biodiversity and mitigation of global warming are two major environmental challenges today. In the context of climate change and the global carbon cycle, the relationship between plant biodiversity and soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration has become a subject of considerable scientific interest. The Earth’s terrestrial vegetation plays a pivotal role in the global carbon cycle. Not only are tremendous amounts of carbon stored in the terrestrial vegetation, but large amounts are also actively exchanged between vegetation and the atmosphere. Anthropogenic perturbations exacerbate the emission of CO₂ from soil caused by decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) or soil respiration (Schlesinger, 2000). The emissions are accentuated by agricultural activities including tropical deforestation and biomass burning, plowing, drainage of wetlands and low-input farming or shifting cultivation. In addition to its impact on decomposition of SOM, macroclimate has a large impact on a fraction of the SOC pool which is active. Conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems increases maximum soil temperature and decreases soil moisture storage in the root zone, especially in drained agricultural soils (Lal, 1996). Thus, land use history has a strong impact on the SOC pool (Pulleman et al., 2000). The dynamic relationship between plant biodiversity and SOC depicts that any land use practices that increase vegetative cover, or reduce its removal, could have an influence on the global carbon budget by increasing the terrestrial carbon sink.

The need for organic farming in India arises from the unsustainability of agriculture production and the damage caused to ecology through the conventional farming practices. The present system of agriculture which we call ‘conventional+’ and practiced the world over evolved in the western nations as a product of their socio-economic environment which promoted an over riding quest for accumulation of wealth. This method of farming adopted by other countries is inherently self destructive and unsustainable.

Since its founding in the early 2000s, Scopus - which describes itself as a “source-neutral abstract and citation database curated by independent subjectmatter experts” — has been recognized as one of the top research indexes. At the time of writing this blog post, Scopus includes over 25,100 titles from 5,000 publishers, spanning 240 academic disciplines - with a staggering 76.8 million core records. Scopus encompasses research across scholarly disciplines but consists primarily of science and technology articles (Fig. 4.1).
There are many benefits to having journals added to the Scopus database. In addition to its extensive content coverage encompassing virtually all subjects, Scopus is known for its high level of academic rigor, including an annual journal re-evaluation process, which it requires as “an incentive for journals to maintain their high content quality.”
Scopus also provides a wide range of metrics for indexed content, including
• Journal-level metrics such as Citescore, which both publishes an annual impact score and gives monthly updates on how things are currently shaping up for each of the indexed titles via the CiteScore Tracker
• Article-level metrics such as PlumX, which analyzes how readers are responding to content in the broader online context (i.e., via tweets, blogs, Wikipedia references, etc.)
• Author-level metrics such as the h-index, which aims to provide an objective measure of the overall impact of individual authors’ publication histories.

Introduction

Drought is one of the primary factors responsible for depressing rice yield in chronic areas and in destabilising rice production in drought-prone areas. It is a production constraint common to all rainfed rice cultures: wetland, upland, and deepwater (O’Toole and Chang 1979). Breeding for drought resistance, a major component of the International Rice Research Institute’s (IRRI) Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Program since the early 1970s, aims at countering the adverse effects of drought in unfavoured rice production areas.

Rice germplasm has such remarkably rich diversity that a continuous spectrum of genotypes differing in the various physiological mechanisms can be found and is available for genetic manipulation (Chang et al. 1982a). However, effective evaluation methods are essential for unravelling the specific mechanism(s) involved and for devising eficient selection criteria in a breeding program. Moreover, the broad spread in growth duration among rice cultivars makes it impractical to obtain uniform evaluation of a large number of cultivars when they differ in physiological responses that are specific to certain growth stages. Methods that can accommodate large numbers are essential to breeding program.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 interconnected goals established by the United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals aim to address global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice (Fig. 14.1).
14.1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The SDGs provide a universal framework to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. Following is the list of the 17 SDGs
1. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-Being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Introduction

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae Spp) a treasure house of vitamins, belonging to the family Elaeagnaceae, and it is a valuable medicinal plant, since its fruit contain high amount of bioactive substances. It is a thorny, temperate bush, tree and is widely distributed throughout the dry temperate regions of Europe and Asia. As the name indicates Seabuckthorn, the plant grows from sea level to high altitude mountain regions but mainly distributed in higher elevations of Indian Himalayas, from Ladakh (J & K) to Lahaul - Spiti (H.P.), Kumaon and Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Chauhan 1999). It is seen under natural conditions Seabuckthorn grows on slopes, well drained soil with silt, river banks, lakes, sea shores & waste lands. It is well adapted to dry conditions. Seabuckthorn the wonder plant of cold arid Himalaya, grows in wastelands, dry rocks and along river belts in Indus, Nubra, Chanthang, Suru, zanskar and Lauhal - Spiti valleys in India (Singh and Chaurasia 2000).

Seabuckthorn is an important plant of India and other regions of the world, where it is being widely used as an orchard plant for fruit production and in the ecological rehabilitation of waste lands and eroded areas. In India, seabuckthorn has been developed into a major environmental resource. Many areas that are virtually treeless and losses huge soil due to erosion, seabuckthorn has turned out to be useful because it withstands severe weather and grows huge root systems in poor soil. This is the reason that seabuckthorn is grown in Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir which is known as cold desert. In Mongolia several wild animal species have found a habitat in the sea buckthorn forest, including pheasant, hare and fox.

In Garhwal Himalayas, various economically important tree species including Seabuckthorn (Hippophae salicipholia) have been over exploited for fuel, fodder and seed, therefore presently exist only in some patches here and there. Due to excessive lopping for fodder, the seed are generally not available for natural regeneration. Hence, there is a need of developing technique for mass multiplication of these multipurpose tree species for afforestation and general well being of the rural people.

Agricultural Seasons

Season is defined as “part of the year during which a distinguished type of weather prevails”.

A) Seasons of Temperate region

1. Spring (March – May) is the first season of the year in which plants being to grow and leaves emerge.
2. Summer (June – August) is the second and warmest season of the year out side the tropics during which plants flourish
3. Fall or Autumn (September – November) is the third season of the year in which leaves turn brown.
4. Winter (December – February) is the last and the coldest season of the year. Many trees loose their leaves.

Introduction

Seaweeds are referred to as the wonder plants of the sea, macrophytic marine algae which are a primitive type of plants lacking true roots, stems and leaves. They usually grow in shallow coastal and marine water. Based on the occurrence of pigments, seaweeds are classified into three groups: Green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) having the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b; Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyta) having the pigment fucoxanthin; and Red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) having the pigment phycoerythrin.

Abstract

Women work two-third of the world’s working hours, produce half of the world’s food yet 60% of the world’s hungry are women. They earn only 10% of the world’s income and own less than one per cent of the world’s property. It reveals deep-rooted gender disparity in human society. But I perceive the secondary agriculture an emerging area with vast opportunities for socio-economic transformation and women empowerment across the globe in a way that conventional agriculture doesn’t have. Secondary agriculture is less affected by climatic factors, relatively stable and more amenable to feminization because of off-field nature. If properly supported it could be an effective tool to promote women empowerment and narrow down gender disparity in rural areas. Secondary Agriculture is not a Secondary Sector economic activity and it broadly embraces to product development through agro-processing (food and nonfood), within the all enterprise classes of small or medium or large scale industry. Being entrepreneurial in nature it assures better remuneration and socio-economic security than primary agriculture. An orientation from production agriculture to product development is an essential pathway to sustainable women empowerment as it will lead to shift from subsistence farming to business farming. Later has the potential to contribute to a range of social and economic developments such as employment generation, income generation, poverty reduction and improvements in family nutrition, health and overall food security to the persons engaged in agri-business farming.

Acid soils occupy one fourth of the land in India. The formation and distribution of acid soils depend upon several factors like temperature, vegetation, parent material and hydrological conditions etc. For this reason, these soils have low pH, poor base saturation, high sexquioxide content, which affects the transformation and availability of plant nutrients.  Secondary and micronutrient deficiency as well as toxicity are major problems in cultivation of crops in acidic soils. These soils are generally deficient in Ca, Mg and S and adequate in Fe, Mn and Cu. Apart from the secondary nutrients, Zn, B and Mo deficiencies affect crop production. In lowlands, rice crop suffers from toxicity of Fe. Aluminum toxicity, common in highly acidic soils, also pose major problems in crop production. Management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils for agriculture is a national priority to achieve food sufficiency and sustainability.

Pulses are important ingredients of human diet and principal source of protein of high biological value particularly for vegetarians. These are excellent feed for animals endowed with an unique ability of biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, soil amelioration, capable to sustain under harsh climate and an integral component of sustainable crop production system. It is expected that by the year 2050 world human population will climb to 9.7 billion, India 1.6 billion and that of Odisha will be more than 5.75 crores. It will be a great challenge by agricultural scientists for assured food security of billions of hungry human mouth with nourishing food especially pulses, oilseeds and other dietary ingredients. Current production of pulses are not sufficient to meet the requirement. In Odisha it is expected to have a shortage of 1.7 lakh tones of pulses towards 2030 if the current rate of production will not increase. The fact is almost similar for nation although India contributes 24 per cent of global pulse production but imports about 2.0 million tones every year. The deficit will further mount as the per capita consumption on dal of an Indian is increasing. It necessitates to increase pulse production which is not happening keeping pace with need (Jena et al., 2015).

Secondary enterprises can play a crucial role in improving the livelihoods of farmers by diversifying their income sources, reducing risks associated with dependence on a single crop or farming activity, and increasing overall
economic resilience. In addition to primary farming activities, many farmers engage in secondary enterprises to diversify their income, reduce risk, and ensure year-round employment. These activities add value to agricultural produce or provide services linked to the agri-sector, often through microenterprises, cottage industries, or village-level entrepreneurship.
Definition
Secondary enterprises refer to non-farm or off-farm activities that are directly or indirectly linked to agriculture, often based on local resources, skills, and traditional knowledge. Here are several ways that secondary enterprises can serve as effective livelihood components for farmers:
1. Value-Added Products
Farmers can engage in the production of value-added products. This may include processing raw agricultural products into items such as jams, cheeses, dried fruits, or specialty sauces. By doing so, they can enhance the market value of their products and tap into niche markets.
2. Agri-Tourism
Farmers can diversify their income by participating in agri-tourism. This could involve offering farm tours, educational workshops, farm stays, or events like harvest festivals. Agri-tourism not only generates additional income but also helps connect consumers with food sources. 

5.1. Importance of Secondary Nutrients in Agriculture

Secondary nutrients such as sulphur (S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are the macronutrients that are required in relatively large amounts for crop growth. Among the secondary nutrients, Ca is the 5^th most abundant element in the earth’s crust while, Mg and S are ranked 8^th and 13^th, respectively. The average S content of the earth’s crust ranges from 0.06 to 0.10%; whereas, Ca in soil solution of temperate region soils is 30 to 300 ppm and soils of tropical areas is 8 to 45 ppm (Tisdale et al., 1997). In case of Mg, its’ concentration ranges from 5-50 in temperate region and 120-2400 ppm in tropical region. The Ca and Mg are the most abundant cations occupying the exchange sites of the soil colloids. Thus, most soils with the possible exception of highly weathered, leached acid soils, contain enough Ca and Mg for crop growth. In soils, occurrence and reactions of S are different from those of Ca and Mg. The plant available S is SO₄^2- ion which is relatively mobile in soil solution. Like nitrogen (N), S is also subjected to chemical and biological oxidation-reduction reactions. On the other hand, Ca and Mg are much more stable and they exist in soil as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ cations and present in association with soil colloidal fraction similar to that of K. In general, Ca and Mg are the most abundant cations occupying in the exchange site.

Secondary nutrients in soils may be lost due to several reasons such as (i) crop removal, (ii) leaching, (iii) erosion, and (iv) volatilization. The amount of Ca and Mg attain importance in areas where soils are either strongly alkaline or acidic. These soils are often deficient in Ca and Mg. The Ca deficiency is most widespread in acidic soils. The alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), being neutral to moderately alkaline in reaction, have sufficient bases on their exchange complex and Ca deficiency is, therefore, rarely found in these soils. However, alkali soils may contain inadequate quantities of Ca due to dominance of Na⁺ on the exchange complex. Magnesium deficiency is found in sandy soils with low exchangeable Mg²⁺, acid soils and those with high in native or applied K. Alkali soils have high exchangeable Na⁺. The Ca²⁺ is a suitable ion to replace this Na⁺ from the exchange complex when Ca²⁺ is supplied through gypsum (CaSO₄.2H₂O). The replaced Na⁺ forms Na₂SO₄ which is then leached down to remove the salt away from the root zone of the crops. Gypsum also reacts with Na₂CO₃ to form CaCO₃ and Na₂SO₄ which is leached down the profile. A thorough leaching of the soil with irrigation water should be done after application of gypsum to free it from Na₂SO₄.

Secondary nutrients are essential for balanced plant nutrition and sustained soil fertility in intensively cultivated irrigated systems. This chapter focuses on calcium, magnesium and sulphur, examining their sources, behaviour, availability and management in soil. Calcium is discussed in relation to its sources, fate in soil, crop removal, leaching and factors affecting its availability, including high sodium content, parent material and interactions with other cations. Calcium fertilizers and their practical importance are also considered. The chapter then examines magnesium, including its sources, behaviour in soil, uptake by crops, leaching and fertilizer management. Sulphur receives detailed attention through discussion of organic and inorganic forms, elemental sulphur and sulfides, sulphate behaviour and the different forms occurring in rice soils. Processes such as adsorption, leaching and immobilization influence sulphur availability and are therefore important under irrigated conditions. Practical aspects of sulphur management, sulphur-containing fertilizers and crop responses to sulphur fertilization are discussed, including effects on the nutritional quality of forages

Secondary nutrients is a triad of three essential plant nutrients namely, Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Sulphur (S). Of these three, Ca and Mg are taken up by plants as cations, while S is taken up as anion SO4 2–. Among the secondary plant nutrients, sulphur is emerging as a major plant-nutrient de?ciency in crops grown in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, spread over 13 million ha in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh (Khurana et al., 2008). From the Indian point of view, S de?ciency has emerged in a large part of the country and needs to be attended. Uptake of Mg and S by some crops is given in Table 10.1.

Secondary tillage equipment refers to agricultural machinery used after primary tillage (such as plowing) to refine the soil for planting. It helps in breaking down clods, incorporating organic matter, controlling weeds, improving soil aeration, and preparing the seedbed. This step is essential for creating ideal soil conditions for seed germination and root development.
Secondary tillage operations are lighter, finer tasks performed after primary tillage to establish the proper soil texture for planting. These operations cause minimal soil inversion or shifting, and they consume less power per unit area compared to primary tillage. The tools used in secondary tillage include various types of harrows, rollers, pulverizers, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, and cage wheels.
Key objectives of secondary tillage is:
• To enhance the seedbed by further breaking down the soil.
• To eliminate grasses and weed seeds from the field.
• To chop crop residues and incorporate them into the topsoil.
• To break large clods and create a smooth, level field surface.
TYPES OF SECONDARY / MINIMUM TILLAGE EQUIPMENT
Below mentioned are some of the main types of secondary tillage implements:

Introduction

An integrated approach to understanding the changing dynamics in water resources involves taking into account various factors that influence the management of water resources under changing climatic conditions (Pahl-Wostl, 2007). It is a holistic approach that combines different disciplines, including hydrology, climatology, ecology, geography, and social sciences, to develop a comprehensive understanding of water resources. The integrated approach is essential for several reasons, including addressing climate change impacts, sustainable management of water resources, enhancing water security, addressing water quality issues, and promoting collaboration among stakeholders. Climate change is causing alterations in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and changes in river flows, affecting water availability and quality. An integrated approach helps in understanding the climate change impacts on water resources and developing adaptation strategies (Asif et al., 2023).

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.