eChapters

13.1 Introduction

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have become an increasingly important topic worldwide due to their effects on global warming and climate change. The effects of GHG emissions on the ecological and socioeconomic vulnerability have already been noticed and will continue to grow regionally and globally in the years to come (IPCC 2007). Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons, perflourocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are the important GHGs that are monitored by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 2008). Global GHG emissions due to human activities (anthropogenic) have grown since the beginning of the industrial revolution with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004 (IPCC, 2007).

The Agriculture sector is by far the largest employer amongst all the major sectors employing roughly half of available workforce. At the same time, agriculture is the smallest sectoral contributor to the GDP. It is ironical that the most important requirement of human being, which is the bulk of agriculture farm produce, is largely considered to be an unrewarding sector in the nation.

Though the Indian agriculture has made significant strides in the course of the last 50 years of planned development, still the farmers today are facing the consequences of host of challenges, namely dependence of monsoon, declining size of land holdings, degradation of soil & water resources, declining investment of public sectors on agriculture. So farmers are increasingly getting indebted and temptation to sell their farm land  for non-farm purposes is growing. Over 45 per cent of farmers want to quit farming says a survey conducted by National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).

Agricultural land is still a great source of income. But the practice of unsustainable methods and improper resource management leading to successive crop failures that make agriculture non- profitable and highly  risky.  So, the interest of youth in agriculture has been declining. While most developing countries are still experiencing high population growth rates, the youth are migrating in significant numbers to urban areas. The younger generation does not consider farming as a profession and they treat it as traditional activities of their family. The farm youth think that the farming system is not capable to provide a life, therefore they are diverting from agriculture to other profession.

The factors affecting sustainability of agriculture under small farm production system in coastal ecosystem of Odisha was studied to ascertain the status of ecological factors and suggest means and ways to improve the situation. The response of the sample farmers and the findings of the study together led to suggest the following measures for up-gradation of ecosystem of the coastal area leading to sustainability of agriculture. Like other states, Odisha is also facing with problems of sustainability of agriculture. Our sample districts namely Puri, Khurda, Ganjam and Balasore which are situated in coastal eco-system of the state has different problems concerning to natural resources like soil, water, forest and animal wealth, etc.

The suggestions to improve the sustainability status of agriculture have been viewed from two important angles. One is adoption of technological measures to preserve natural resources and other is the policy and extension approach to educate people about the necessity of taking such measures for sustainability of agriculture and improve upon.

The world is changing rapidly and education is facing new challenges as we move into the 21st century. For Extensionist, this means new approaches to teaching and learning are needed. Futurist John Naisbitt (1994) predicts that as structured employment opportunities decline, entrepreneurial skills will become necessary for the rural youth to compete. Additionally, acquiring skills and attitudes necessary for the youth can be achieved through youth entrepreneurship programs (Cox, 1998)

There is a challenge to convert ideas into policy and then into action to put in programmes aimed at helping the future farmers of the world.  According to UN report , Youth as a target group is not a major policy priority of most governments in developing countries. This review illustrates that youth are only occasionally visible in policy related documents.  Hazelman  (2008) emphasized based on lessons from case studies made by FAO in Asia and the Pacific,  highlighted  the importance of having a clear national policy relating to rural youth; building and utilizing youth networks and partnerships at the national, regional and international levels; organizing youth into youth-led organizations that are active and have strong leadership together with competent and committed advisors, with projects and activities that address youth and community needs; and giving priority and attention to education and training opportunities for continued learning and human-capacity building.

Management of paddy straw is one of the important problems being faced by the farmers. Burning of rice straw in the field is the traditional method being practiced by most of the farmers, which causes atmospheric pollution and nutrient loss. There are three options available to manage the straw viz. i) burning the straw in the field, ii) collecting/baling the straw from the field, and incorporation of straw in the field. If rice straw is not burnt then baling may provide an attractive economic environmentally safe option. Manual collection of paddy straw is a laborious job and also storing the large volume of straw is another problem. As for as paddy straw is concerned, it has higher silica content so animals do not prefer it.

5.1 Introduction

A steam can be defined as a flow channel in to which the surface runoff flowing over the land surfaces and base flow/ground flow flowing below the ground surfaces meet. It receives the total flow from a specified basin. Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies. Interestingly, stream flow is the only part of the hydrologic cycle that can be measured accurately. Stream flow is a historical data and like rainfall and runoff, it is a stochastic hydrologic variable. It is also called as discharge or rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time.

SYNOPSIS

In all probability the ancient farmer’s market originated on the streets of villages and later on, on the streets of towns. The street food survived through decades and centuries and now it has assumed its new role in fulfilling the readymade food demand of the working people of mega cities. The street food has now more relevance to the growing urban population. With the lapse of time and migration people to the cities, the business and activities of street food got expanded in qualitative and quantitative terms worldwide.

National journals play a crucial role in the dissemination of regionally relevant research, particularly in specialized fields such as agricultural sciences. These journals act as accessible platforms for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to share findings, innovations, and solutions tailored to local contexts. Strengthening national journals is essential for fostering knowledge exchange, promoting inclusivity in scientific communication, and addressing the unique challenges faced by different regions (Fig. 12.1).
This chapter explores strategies for improving the quality, visibility, and credibility of national journals, with examples from countries across the globe, including those outside North America and Europe. Case studies of successful initiatives are included to illustrate best practices for empowering local publishing platforms, with a particular focus on non-English publications.
12.1. The Importance of National Journals in Agricultural Sciences
Agricultural sciences are inherently context-dependent. Local factors such as climate, soil type, cropping systems, and socioeconomic conditions influence the challenges faced by farmers and the solutions that are most effective. National journals provide a vital medium for addressing these region-specific issues, enabling researchers to publish studies that may not align with the broader focus of international journals. Furthermore, these journals often cater to the immediate needs of local policymakers, extension workers, and educators, ensuring that research findings are translated into actionable outcomes.

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

Abstract

In order to estimate the irrigation need of the crop, stress degree day index computers from canopy and air temperature could be used. During rabi manon, two varieties (Seeta, Brassica Juncea) and (Benoy, Brassica Camperteris) were grown. The canopy temperature of the crop was measured on 45th, 60th  and 75th  days after sowing and stress degree day (SDDI) was also measured. About 67, 70 and 51 per cent activation between SDDI and dry matter production could be explained at 45, 60 and 75 DAS of the crop growth period. Reflectance by mustard canopy was 940 measured. Late sown crop reflected less radiation with the advancement of growth. Extinction coefficient was also measured and the increase in the value of extinction coefficient upon irrigation showed canopy development and better utilization of increasing radiation by the crop. 

Both dryland crops and irrigated crops experience an assortment of ecological or environmental stresses which include abiotic viz., drought, water logging, salinity, extremes of temperature, changes in atmospheric gases and biotic viz., insects, birds, other pests, weeds, pathogens. Dryland crops are more vulnerable to stress in the present context of changing climatic scenarios. The ability to tolerate or adapt effectively by challenging these stresses is a very complicated phenomenon would be due to various plant interactions occurred in the specific environment. Both biotic and abiotic stresses occur at various stages of plant growth and development and frequently more than one stress concomitantly affects the crop. It is difficult to distinguish effects of these stress factors on the performance of crop plants with respect to yield and quality of harvested products. This is of special significance of maximizing productivity of dryland crops in changing climate scenarios, with complex consequences for ecologically and environmentally sound Indian agriculture. In order to successfully meet this challenge, one should understand the various aspects of stresses in view of the current development and to promote a competitive dryland production system.

Introduction

According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) “all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10% is defined as Forest” (FSI 2009). The status of forests and forest management systems contribute to the vulnerability of forests to climate change. Indian forests are extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Forests and Climate Change are intimately intertwined. Forests have regulated the climate, rain, groundwater, soil of the earth over millennia. Their transpiration act as a regulator of the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide: the world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons of carbon – twice the amount found floating free in the atmosphere. The forest and soils are home of biological diversity.

Introduction

Bundelkhand is an important region of Central India which is often called as heartland of the nation. It is spread in the geographical area of 7.08 mha, includes 14 districts seven, each of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and supports 1.84 crore (as per 2011 census) of socio-economically and culturally diverse population. The present region of Bundelkhand lies between approximately 23°10’ and 26°27’ (north) latitude and 78°4’ and 810 34’ (east) longitude. It lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south. Bundelkhand is a hot and semi- humid climate with highly variable depending on the region and with gently sloping upland, distinguished by barren hilly terrain with sparse vegetation, although it was historically forested. As with the rest of the Indian sub-continent, Bundelkhand experiences two main seasons, monsoon and dry. The monsoon brings over 90 percent of the annual rainfall between the months of June and September with the highest precipitation occurring in July and August. On an average, the region receives 75 cm to 125 cm of rain each year. The dry plains in the north usually receive less rain compared to the south- eastern part of the region. Minimum temperature varies from around 6-12 ^?C and maximum temperature varies from 38- 48 ^?C.

The region is blessed with plenty of natural resources. It had truly been endowed by nature, with beautiful mountains, good perennial rivers, fast flowing seasonal rivulets, large rich forest areas with valuable timber, fruit trees, numerous medicinal plants / herbs in almost each district. The rainfall here had been on average much better than many parts of India. Bundelkhand is a part of the central zone of India with a group of north-bound perennial rivers flowing and paying tribute to river Yamuna. From west to east these are Sind, Pahuj, Betwa, Dhasan, Ken, Baghein Paisuni and Tons. Along with Chambal and Yamuna these are ten major rivers. Other water resources in Bundelkhand are in form of water stored / conserved on surface termed as ponds, tanks, lakes etc. Bundelkhand has, undoubtedly, been one of the regions in India very much known for its historical rain-water management through man-made ponds, tanks and lakes. Topography here helped to build such structures but more than anything it reflected fore-sight and positive attitude of those rulers towards conservation of nature.

Introduction

India is considered as one of the emerging superpowers of the world. This potential is attributed to several indicators, the primary one being its demographic trends and a rapidly expanding economy. In 2015, India became the world’s fastest growing economy with a 7.5% estimated GDP rate. But in the year 2020, the pandemic lockdown situation created adverse impact on the global economy. At this juncture, there is an urgent need to focus on native and indigenous resource mapping and judicious utilization of it to be a self-reliant. The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated a new set of reforms to strengthen the economy. The first mention of this came in the form of the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Self-Reliant India Mission’ by the Government of India during the announcement of the coronavirus pandemic related economic package on 12^th May 2020. Almost 70% of India’s population depends directly and indirectly on agriculture for their survival. This means the country cannot have a development model that ignores agriculture.

It’s time to take a look at India’s agriculture economy. Over the last 10 years, (2008-19) India has been a net exporter of many farm produce. In fact, in 2018, the government has come up with a new agricultural export policy aimed at doubling farm income by 2022. However, in 2019-20, agri-exports were just $36 billion and the agri-trade surplus was $11.2 billion. The net agri-trade surplus has been falling over a period of time, making it difficult to achieve doubling of farmers’ income and doubling of agriculture exports by 2022as well.

India is not yet self-reliant in various essential agriculture commodities and depends heavily on imports. India imports around 15 million tonnes of edible oil every year — more than 9 million tonnes of palm oil and about 2.5 million tonnes each of soybean oil and sunflower oil. It buys palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia, and soy and sunflower oil from Argentina, Brazil, Ukraine and Russia. There is a need to create self-reliance in theses commodities enhancing productivity of Indian farms to create competitive advantage for domestic producers. India can step up cultivation of sunflower, groundnuts, mustard and oil palms. Presently, India has about two million hectares of land that is suitable for oil palm cultivation.

Structure of a business or legal framework

1. Sole proprietorship: A private company is a form where an individual is the exclusive proprietor of the business. It constitutes a straightforward setup where the owner is one person who manages the everyday operations of the company. In this case, the business is not regarded as an independent entity. Therefore, earnings and debts are merged into their personal accounts, which are assessed and taxed at the individual level.

Advantages of the sole proprietorship structure include

• Complete Control: As a sole proprietor, you have the right to make all business decisions and do not have to negotiate with other partners, managers or shareholders as in other structures.

• Easier Startup: The creation of a private company does not necessitate completing forms or remitting a state fee. This can ease the procedure and render it more affordable.

• Simple tax reporting: Because a business is not legally a separate entity, your income tax return includes the expenses and income of the business. As an added bonus, you can use business losses to offset your earned income, which can result in a higher taxable income.

• Privacy: Sole proprietors do not have to file annual reports with state or federal governments. Therefore, the company is not disclosed in the same way as in other structures.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an important experimental tool used in determining crustal structure of material system in bulk and nanoregimes. Therefore, it is important to understand the basic concepts of XRD.

Abstract

Pollinators provide key services to both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agricultural productivity depends, in part, on pollinator populations from adjacent semi natural habitats. Honey bees are the primary pollinators of mustard crop because it is highly attractive to bees and provides both nectar and pollen. Studies were conducted to assess the diversity and relative abundance of pollinators in mustard (Brassica juncea) of 2011-2012 at Apiary Garden, G.B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.A total of 19 insect visitors belonging to order Hymenoptera (15) and Diptera (4) were found to visit the mustard blossoms. Hymenopteran visitors belonged to six families namely Apidae (6), Scollidae (3), Xylocopidae (1), Halictidae (2), Magachilidae (1), Anthophoridae (1) and Sphecidae (1). Lepidopteran visitors belonged to families Pieridae (1). Besides this some Dipteran visitor belonged to families these were Syrphidae (3) and Muscidae (1) were observed on mustard flowers. From the family Apidae, honeybees (Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis cerana indica and Apis florea), Ceratina sexmaculata, Xylocopa iridipennis and stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps family Apidae. Scolia (Discolia) binolata, Campsomeriella collaris and C. annulata of family Scollidae, the Alkali Bees (Nomiasp.) and Halictussp. of Halictidae, Leaf cutter bee (Megachile disjuncta) of Megachilidae, the digger bee (Anthophorasp.) of Anthophoridae and Sphex sp. of Sphecidae. Three species from family Syrphidae (Syrphus corollae, Episyrphus valtiatus and Eristalis tenax) and one species from Muscidae (Musca domestica) visited the mustard flowers. The abundance (percentage of insect/m2/2min.) of Hymenopterans were maximum (79.97 %) followed by the Dipterans (16.15 %) and others (3.73 %). In Hymenopterans, the honeybees (Apis bees) were observed maximum (57.55 %) followed by non Apis bees (21.06 %) and the scolid wasp (1.35 %).

The concentration of a true solution refers to the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. It is an important property because it determines the solution’s behavior in chemical reactions, its physical proper ties (such as boiling and freezing points), and its utility in various applications. Concentration can be expressed in several ways, depending on the context and the precision required.

Methods to Express Concentration of a True Solution

1. Molarity (M)

• Definition: Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter (1,000 mL) of solution.