eChapters

Introduction and History

Leguminosae/Fabaceae is a superfamily of dicotyledonous plants, which in species diversity is the third largest family of plants accounting for 5% of Earth’s plant biodiversity and make up for more than at least 1% of the total Earth plant biomass. Among these, legume grains and pulses having more than 20 to 30% lysine protein content are cultivated in 145 million ha of land in developing countries. This family is also characterized by presence of specialized tumor like structure formation (nodules) on roots (occasionally on stem as in Sesbania rostrata, Aeschynomene) that is inhabited by microsymbiont gram-negative bacteria (Rhizobium), engaged in fixing atmospheric nitrogen or symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation.

Social Control

Social control denotes the influence wielded by the public or society aimed at fostering the collective welfare of the group. It entails mechanisms that induce individuals to adhere to societal norms and moral standards, thereby guiding their behavior towards socially acceptable actions. The imperative role of social control lies in upholding societal stability, which is indispensable given the inherent variability of human nature and the pervasive impact of environmental factors.

Various scholars have offered insights into the concept of social control:

According to Mannheim, social control encompasses the array of methods employed by a society to shape human behavior, thereby preserving a predetermined social order.

Modern agriculture faces the challenge of increasing food production while minimizing environmental impacts like soil degradation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss. To address these issues, integrating microbial biotechnology with nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach. Nanoparticles (NPs) with plants and microbes, enhances nutrient uptake, plant growth, and stress tolerance. Bioinoculants, which contain beneficial microorganisms, promote plant health, but are limited by stability and environmental factors. The synergistic use of nanoparticles and bioinoculant offers a novel solution, improving crop yield, nutrient uptake, and resilience to stress, reducing dependence on chemical inputs. This integration supports the development of more resilient, resource-efficient, and environment-friendly agricultural systems.

The communication system provides the forecaster with a large mass of figures; the next step is to put them into a suitable form for study. This is done by plotting the observations on a large outline map which in popular term is called a “Weather map” technically a “Synoptic chart” simplified synoptic charts appear in some newspaper.

A chart or map on which meteorological data presented and analysed is called a synoptic chart. Synoptic means having the same view point. The representation of the meteorological data in synoptic chart are atmospheric wind, temperature, pressure, cloud, precipitation, dew point etc., over a long area at a given local standard times.

3.1 Introduction

The concept of nanoscience was first described in 1959 by physicist Richard P. Feynman in a lecture to the American Physical Society and it was Japanese researcher Norio Taniguchi who coined the term nanotechnology in 1974 to describe precision engineering with tolerances of a micron or less. Eric Drexler in 1986 in his book Engines of Creation, brought nanotechnology into the public domain.

Aim

To synthesize chitosan/nanosilica coating solution for fruit coating aiming at increasing shelf life.

Introduction

Application of edible coatings is promising to improve the quality and extend shelf life of fruits and vegetables (Lin et al., 2011). Chitosan, a versatile biopolymer derived from deacetylation of chitin had been widely applied in the fresh-keep field owing to its good biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibacterial activity and capacities to form film (Lin et al., 2011).

Aim

To synthesize iron (III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles

Introduction

Iron oxide nanoparticles have a number of applications in catalysis, sensors and high sensitive biomolecular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for medical diagnosis and therapeutics. They can be synthesize by the bottom-up approaches including the sol-gel technique.

Aim

To synthesize silver (Ag) nanoparticle.

Introduction

The Ag nanoparticles easily interact with other particles and increases their antibacterial efficiency. The Ag nanoparticles can be synthesized using various methods: biological, chemical electrochemical, γ-radiation, photochemical, laser ablation etc (Udapudi et al., 2012). The most popular preparation of Ag colloids is chemical reduction of Ag salts by sodium borohydride or sodium citrate (Udapudi et al., 2012).

16.1 Introduction

The stabilization of ultra fine as nano-particles in suspension is very important for both controlling the particle size and for developing process based application of these suspensions to achieve a desired result. Generally, two approaches, namely, Top Down and Bottom-Up approaches are followed for the preparation of ultra fine or nano particles. In the Top-Down method, production starts from the micro-scale and the particles size is reduced to nano-size through repeated impact and collision in high-energy ball mills. However, controlling of size, morphology, surface properties and electrostatic charge is often difficult. In the Bottom-up approach, production of nano-particles starts with the individual atoms and building up to a nano-structure by chemical processes.

Solid state materials can exists in various forms namely:

1. Single crystals (preferred for authentic characterization of structure and physical properties)
2. Polycrystalline powders that are agglomerates of large number of crystallites and are used for characterization when single crystal cannot be easily obtained
3. Nanocrystalline or nanostructured materials that posses large surface area
4. Thin films that can be grown in the best crystalline form for many applications
5. Amorphous systems that have no long-range translational order

Synthetic seeds are also known as somatic seeds, artificial seeds, clonal seeds and synseeds. They are analogue for botanical seeds. Somatic embryoids which are tissue culture produced embyoids with bipolar structures, apical and basal meristematic regions which are capable of forming shoot and root respectively. Somatic embryoids are encapsulated and are used as artificial seeds possessing the ability to convert into plants in in vitro and ex vitro conditions. Artificial seeds are broadly two types.

Introduction 
A system approach to understand the soil-plant-water continuum fundamentally shifts our perspective from viewing these elements in isolation to recognizing them as an intricately woven, dynamic whole. It’s about appreciating that every change in one part of this natural tapestry—be it the soil, the plant, or the water itself—reverberates through the others, creating a cascade of interconnected effects. This holistic lens allows us to dissect the continuous exchange of water and energy, unraveling the complex feedback loops and emergent behaviors that characterize this vital agricultural system. Instead of merely tracking individual inputs and outputs, a systems view compels us to comprehend how these components influence each other over time, leading to a far more nuanced understanding of their collective behavior. At the heart of this continuum lie three primary, yet inseparable, components: the soil, the plant, and the water itself, all profoundly influenced by the atmosphere. The soil acts as both a foundational anchor and a dynamic reservoir. Its very composition—the proportion of sand, silt, and clay, its structure, and its organic matter content—dictates how readily water infiltrates, how much it can hold against the pull of gravity, and how quickly it can release water to plant roots. Processes like infiltration, percolation, and capillary rise describe water’s journey within the soil matrix, while evaporation from the soil surface represents a significant loss pathway. Crucially, the soil also serves as the medium for nutrient availability, with water acting as the solvent that transports these vital elements to the roots. The plant, in turn, is the primary biological conduit for water’s journey from the soil back to the atmosphere. It actively absorbs water through its roots, moving it upward through the xylem to the leaves, where it is transpired through tiny pores called stomata. This transpiration process is not merely a loss; it’s the driving force behind the plant’s physiological engine, facilitating

Cost is the value of the factors of production used in producing and distributing goods and services. The cost of a factor unit equals the maximum amount which the factor could earn in alternative employment. Broadly speaking, cost is the measure of what has to be given up in order to achieve something. Production costs play an important role in the decision of the farmers. Cost of production here means the exogenesis incurred per unit of output. In general, at given level of prices, a farmer can increase his farm income in two ways i.e. (i) by increasing production or (ii) by reducing the cost of production. The cost of production involves both cash cost and non cash cost items. Cash costs are incurred when resources are purchased and used immediately in the production process such as casual labour, fertilizer fuel etc. And non cash cost like depreciation on farm building and equipment and payment made to farmer himself or family labour, management and owned capital. Before estimating the cost of cultivation/production, we should know the concepts/terms are used in estimating the cost. Concept means idea underlying or general notion.

Cost concepts and items of cost

The cost of production of a crop is considered at three different levels viz., cost A, cost B and cost C. The concept of nine costs such as is followed by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agricultures Government of india in their cost studies are given below.

With the advent of modern crop varieties, better irrigation facilities and greater use of fertilizers and other inputs country has changed within the last 50 years from a region of food scarcity to a region of food sufficiency. The greenrevolutiontechnologiesinvolvinggreateruseofsynthetic agro-chemicals such as frrertilizers and pesticides with adoption of nutrient- responsive, high yielding varieties of crops have boosted the production per unit area under different crops and cropping systems. However, this increase in production has slowed down and in some cases there are indications of decline in growth of productivity and production (Table 1). These production scenarios may be envisaged as corresponding decrease in soil organic matter and continuous increase in multi nutrient deficiency (Dwivedi et al., 2006). If such situation is allowed to continue for another few decades, there are chances that todays’ productive land may become unproductive. The declines in yield and production fatigue have been noticed in various cropping systems of different agro-eco region (Gill and Singh, 2009). Farmers’ participatory surveys conducted in Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) region indicates that farmers’have resorted higher doses ofnutrients each year to obtain the same yield as obtained in previous year (Dwivedi et al., 2001). The probable reasons behind these are continuous mining of nutrients, inadequate use of organic sources, imbalance fertilization and decline of soil organic matter.

A nutrient budget is a valuable indicator of the long term sustainability of a cropping system. It indicates where fertilizer application is inadequate and leading to decline in the soil nutrient status. Conversely, it can indicate excessive inputs which result in a nutrient surplus and greater potential for losses to the environment and waterways. (Combs et al., 1996) Thus nutrient budget is the comparison between all the sources of nutrients available to the producer and the requirement of nutrients to meet the crop and soil needs. The sources can either be from on the farm, such as livestock manure or credits from legumes, or from off the farm, such as purchased fertilizer or irrigation water. The requirement is the amount of nutrients needed by the crop to obtain the expected yields.

Most values for nutrients available from different sources (credits) and crop nutrient requirements are calculated from estimates taken from many years of long historical averages and field research. There is no “real time” method of calculating exactly what neither the crop’s nutrient requirement or the nutrients available are at any one time. More closely, both the nutrient requirements and availability are based on past performance for the climatic and soil condition. These values are given with some surety that the crop grown will be supplied with adequate nutrient during the growing season and the crops will not be limited in its growth. All incidental environment losses, such as runoff and leaching, have been accounted for. Climatic conditions, particularly temperature and soil moisture, greatly influence both the crop performance and the soil’ s capacity to provide nutrients to the plant. During any growing season, there can be many changes in the climate conditions that will affect both the crop growth and soil delivery of nutrients to the crop.

Although a nutrient budget is not an exact formula for supplying nutrients, it is one method for organizing the nutrient needs ofthe crop with the nutrients available on the farm. Nutrient budgets can easily determine if there is a gross imbalance between the nutrients that are available vs. the amount required. Nutrient budgets are one of the best methods to see the over all supply of crop nutrients available, compared to the estimated crop needs as given by historic records and field research. Continued use of soil testing, plant and water analyses and yield monitoring are essential to maintain good nutrient balance with desired results.

Rice is the most important crop in India occupying about 43.7 million hectares area with a production of 136.5 million tonnes (rough rice/ paddy). As the human population is increasing, so is the demand for rice, yet yields of the crop are leveling out. At present, the rice yield in India is 3.12 t/ha as against the world average of 4.11 t/ha. Not only this, the rice yield in India is exactly half than that of China (6.26 t/ha). The World Development Report 2008 predicts that cereal production would have to increase by 50% by 2030 to meet the escalating worldwide demand. The additional rice for increasing population will have to be produced on less land with less water, less labour, and reduced inputs.The major constraint in rice production in India is the lack of suitable crop management practices and sufficient irrigation facilities. The water crisis is threatening the sustainability of the irrigated rice system and food security in many parts of the world. Despite efforts on a variety of fronts, including genetic engineering of rice strains for improved yield and nutrition, no concrete solution has been found yet. There is a challenge to develop novel technologies and production systems that allow rice production to be maintained or increased in the face of declining water availability. To produce 1 kg of grain, farmers have to put 2 to 3 times more water in rice fields than in those growing other cereals.

The increasing water need for agriculture poses a potential threat to natural water resources and climatic change scenarios in the near future. The great challenge will be to increase food production with less water, particularly in countries with limited water and land resources, by promoting techniques and cropping systems of higher water-use efficiency (WUE).There is also much evidence that water scarcity already prevails in rice-growing areas in India, where rice farmers need technologies to cope with water shortage and ways must be sought to grow rice with less water.The farmers, especially those, who are resource-poor, are losing interest in rice cultivation as its profitability is declining with the rise in input costs. But, system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice culture appear to be a viable alternative of rice cultivation that may save the expensive inputs, improve soil health/ quality and protect the environment substantially.

Introduction

Training is the crucial and expensive component of HRD, intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of performance of the members of organization through planned learning efforts, transfer of such learning at work place and in turn improvement of the organizational performance. Given such objectives, most of the training programmes fail to inculcate the transfer component in trainees (Subedi 2004). Hence, there is an increasing concern over training transfer at work place and the resultant improved organizational performance in terms of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness and turn over etc (Howard 1995, Huselid 1995, Martocchio and Baldwin 1997 and Salas et al.. 2000, Thayer1997).

For better understanding of different systems of farming it is essential to study certain terminologies.

Farm is a piece of land with specific boundaries, where crop and livestock enterprises are taken up under a common management.

Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products or it is the business of cultivating land, raising livestock etc.

System refers to an orderly set of interdependent and interacting components none of which can be modified without causing a related change elsewhere in the system.

There are three district systems of farming as wetland system of farming, garden land (irrigated dry land) system of farming and dryland system of farming.

Wetland: Pertaining to soils flooded or copiously irrigated through lake or pond or tank for a least several weeks in each year (or) to crop growth in such soils. The water is not entirely under the control of the farmer.

Tamil Nadu state is situated at the south-eastern extremity of the Indian peninsula bounded on the north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, in the east by Bay of Bengal, in the south by Indian Ocean and in the west by Kerala state.  The state has a coastal line of 922 km and a land boundary of 1200 km. Tamil Nadu lies between 8°5’ and 13° 35’N latitude and 76°15’ and 80°20’E longitude. The total geographical area of Tamil Nadu is 13.03 m ha.

Background and Technology Intervention

Tanks are one of the oldest structures in India that has been serving as an important water harvesting device since time immemorial. The total number of irrigation tanks in India is estimated to be around 2, 08,000 of which, three states in South India viz., Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka accounts for nearly 1, 27,000 tanks irrigating 1.8 million hectares of land (Gandhiraj, 2009, Siva Subramanian, 2006, Sakthivadivel et al. 2004, Vaidhyanathan, 2001). In Tamil Nadu for instance, there are more than 39,000 tanks at present many of which were constructed during 18th and 19th centuries by kings, zamindars and Britishers (Jagadeesan, M 2011; Palanisami and Easter 2000: 9). Similarly in Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, tank irrigation developed extensively since ancient times. The district of Warangal and Karim Nagar have several old irrigation tank structures.