eChapters

There are about 3000 tanneries processing 6000 tonnes of hides and skin annually in India. Large amounts of solid and liquids are generated in tanneries containing N and heavy metals. The treatment of tannery waste waters generates sludge which contain a large variety of organic and mineral components. The amount of sludge from a single tannery may be obtained up to 10,000 tonnes/ Yr. Fresh Sludges undergo preliminary fermentation on liquid separating plots which are stored in piles where further decomposition takes place. As a result of decomposition process, partially biodegraded material resembling compost is obtained. It looks like deep black earthy material. The chemical composition indicates the possibility of using it in agriculture. The hides of infected animals many contain anthrax germs and be contaminated with heavy metals particularly chromium in the sludge which depends on the technology for hide tanning and the methods used in a sewage treatment plants. The sludge from tanneries using chromium in the treatment process are not suitable to be used as fertilizer as they contain high amount of chromium. Co-composting of these wastes with crop residues could provide good quality compost and the heavy metal content would get diluted and reduced per unit weight.

Abstract

Extensive occurrence of alkaline soils has been reported from the Indo-Gangetic plains of Northern India, which is commonly known as ‘usar’ or ‘reh’. High alkalinity and high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of such soil render it inhospitable for normal crop production. Research efforts over the past few decades have resulted in evolving a number of practices for the reclamation and management of such soils. However, application of biological inputs in combination with some moderately salt tolerant plant species seems to be a better option. AM fungi is well known to enhance the ability of plants to cope with environmental stresses generally prevalent in the degraded ecosystems and stress conditions by providing a number of nutritional and non-nutritional benefits. Since isolates of AM fungi differ in their tolerance to adverse physical and chemical conditions in soil and are better adapted to their native stressed microhabitat, selection of appropriate native AMF isolate is necessary for any large scale reclamation program. Taxonomic diversity of AM fungi in the alkaline soils of Upper Gangetic plains of district Allahabad and adjoining areas has been investigated and it was found that such soils have a detrimental effect on the AM spore population, distribution and diversity. Maximum spore population occurred in winter and minimum in summer. Glomus followed by Acaulospora was the most dominant genus. Acaulospora scrobiculata and Glomus fasciculatum were the most frequent species followed by Glomus mosseae and Glomus aggregatum. Glomus fasciculatum was the most abundant species followed by Glomus mosseae and Acaulospora longula.

Abstract

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is a highly evolved mutually beneficial relationship found between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and vascular plants. Knowledge of taxonomic and functional diversity of AM fungi is important in understanding the biology and ecology of such a widespread mycorrhizal symbiosis. Classification and identification of AM fungi remains in the formative stages of growth, with all the attendant turmoil. Since Glomus is known to be an important AM genera for providing multifacet benefit to several economically important plants. Hence, in this review article an attempt has been made to describe 120 Glomus species along with the line diagram of 63 Glomus species for their proper identification that can be used as an identification manual for mycorrhizal researchers.

Abstract

Based on oxygen requirement, microorganisms have been classified into different groups, like facultative anaerobes, micro-aerophilic, aerotolerant and strict/obligate anaerobes. Obligate or strict anaerobes are the key components of anoxic environments and provide valuable ecosystem services like methanogenesis, sulphate reduction, metal reduction, degradation of pollutants etc. Apart from being valuable for the ecosystem, they are causative agents of human infections. They are the key players of human-gut microbiology, and can be used in bio-toilets, solid waste management, anaerobic digestion of waste, wastewater treatment processes and generation of waste to energy etc. Only few anaerobic microorganisms are pathogenic in nature. A mechanistic understanding about physiology and metabolism of anaerobic microorganisms is imperative for their industrial applications. Cultivation of these organisms is the first and very important step for the basic and applied study of anaerobes. Unlike cultivation of aerobic microorganisms anaerobic cultivation needs special care and facilities for successful handling of anaerobes. In the current chapter, We tried to incorporate the components and technicalities of anaerobic pre-reduced media preparation, cultivation and successful isolation of strict anaerobes. In addition, we also tried to discuss the different tools used for cultivation of anaerobes.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

Analytical methods for study of soil microbes

The analytical techniques for study of soil microbes are grouped under the following heads :

• Determination of form and arrangement of microorganisms in soil
• Isolation and characterization of soil microorganisms
• Detection of microbial activity in soil
• Determination of microbial biomass.

For the above, the different analytical methods used are described below.

Soil organisms play vital role in agri-ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, soil detoxification and organic matter decomposition. They also influence water infiltration by improving soil porosity through production of polysaccharides. Rhizosphere microorganisms help plant to acquire macro and micronutrients, produce phytohormones for better crop establishment. Soil microbes process organic matter to provide a balance of minerals and nutrients which are utilized by plants to achieve healthy and vigorous growth. Microbes also colonize on plants parts and offers protection by excluding many plant pathogens. They are the basic indicators of soil fertility and are responsible for maintaining a hospitable environment for crop growth.

The drones are configured to traverse the field and acquire photos and sensor data in alignment with the predetermined flight plan. High-resolution cameras get visual data, whereas multispectral sensors gather information on light wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum, thereby offering insights into plant health and stress levels.
During drone flights, essential techniques for data acquisition encompass photogrammetry utilizing overlapping high-resolution images, GPS tracking for accurate location data, IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) sensors for monitoring attitude and movement, ground control points (GCPs) for precise georeferencing, multispectral or hyperspectral imaging for comprehensive spectral analysis, LiDAR scanning for the generation of 3D point clouds, and data logging systems to document sensor readings throughout the flight, all while meticulously planning flight paths and accounting for variables such as lighting and weather conditions.
Drones have emerged as a vital competitive advantage in the inspection of various asset types, optimizing time, reducing costs, and mitigating risk. Historically, an inspection necessitated an inspector to ascend the structure, capturing images and doing measurements manually from considerable heights.
This procedure is intricate; it necessitates extended hours and the presence of numerous experts on site for safety. The data generated by inspectors through manual pictures and measurements is limited: manual inspections may necessitate many trips to collect adequate information for necessary maintenance.
Manually operating a drone to obtain the data necessitates training, expertise, and extensive experience. A pilot collecting data for a tower inspection must comprehend the requirements of the inspectors. The pilot must comprehend how to maneuver an aircraft accurately around an asset to obtain precise aerial photos, regardless of barriers, wind conditions, or the necessity to replace batteries during the trip. The data must be examined and converted into a digital format that is

9.1. ITKS for Seed Treatment and Sowing

• Yield of almost all the crops depends on seed quality.
• Even if it is a quality seed, it should be a dried one because well dried seeds will have higher longevity and keeping quality.
• It better to change the seeds at least once in two years.
• To maintain the seed viability and prevent it from outside damage, the outer shell is not separated.
• The seeds are generally stored along with the leaves of neem (Azadirachta indica), pungam (Pongamia pinnata), notchi (Vitex negundo) and thumbai (Leucas aspera).
• Six weeks nursery period is enough for six months duration of the crop.
• Shallow sowing is followed in dry lands.
• Severing the broadcasted seeds in dry lands with soil.
• Dragging, over the fields, the thorny branches with weight over them for covering seeds the sown on dry lands.
• It is better to start planting from ‘Sani moolai’ (north east) of the field to get higher yields.
• It is better to perform sowing and planting operations during evening hours.

Weeds can be considered a significant problem because they tend to decrease crop yields by increasing competition for water, sunlight and nutrients while serving as host plants for pests and diseases. Since the invention of herbicides, farmers have used these chemicals to eradicate weeds from their fields. Using herbicides not only increased crop yields but also reduced the labor required to remove weeds. Today, some farmers have a renewed interest in organic methods of managing weeds since the widespread use of agro-chemicals has resulted in purported environment and health problems. It has also been found that in some cases herbicides use can cause some weed species to dominate fields because the weeds develop resistance to herbicides. In addition, some herbicides are capable of destroying weeds that are harmless to crops, resulting in a potential decrease in biodiversity on farmers. It is important to understand that under an organic system of weed control, weeds could never be eliminated but only managed. In organic agriculture weeds are the resources as they are mostly native to the field/areas of existence (Children’s of the soil)

2.1. GERMPLASM COLLECTION
a. Propagation techniques
There are four main propagation techniques that are used in plant reproduction for most plants, viz;
• Seed
• Cuttings
• Marcotting
• Grafting
Note: That not all plants can be propagated by all the four methods mention above.

The measurement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has been started during middle of the last century. Initially, CO₂ and water vapour were measured with other common meteorological variables like temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall, humidity etc., for monitoring the weather condition and pollution. The absolute or relative concentrations of gasses in atmosphere are used to measure basically for monitoring purpose. However, limited studies were dealt with actual gaseous exchanges of fluxes. The concern about gaseous flux measurement and GHGs-exchanges started after 1900s when people got concerned about anthropogenic pollution, environmental sustainability and climate change issues. The GHGs-exchanges in earth-atmosphere systems primarily occur due to change in meteorological variables, soil responses and physiological activities of crops. If we are interested for environmental data inventories, then absolute GHGs concentrations of atmosphere at a specific time is required. However, presently researchers, students, environmentalists, climate scientists are primarily interested for quantitative data on GHGs fluxes and or GHGs-exchanges. They want to know what and how much quantity of a particular GHG is emitting from unit area at unit time.

Flux refers to the amount of any gas emitted per unit area per unit time. The dimension of that is M A^-11 T^-1. (Where, M= Mass/ Quantity; A= Area; T= Time). The SI unit of flux is g m²s^-1. Therefore, flux is a vector. It has magnitude as well as direction. As for example positive flux of CO₂ from earth surface means, CO₂ is moving out from earth surface to atmosphere. If it moves in opposite direction then the flux would be negative. In that case CO₂ gas may be absorbed by the soil surface from adjacent atmosphere. Similarly, GHGs fluxes of earth surface are either positive or negative. Generally, positive GHGs flux refers to emission of GHGs from earth to atmosphere and vice versa.

17.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end users have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgment approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IREP project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “finical” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple words, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

1. Introduction 
The Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel explores the intersection of nanotechnology and renewable energy production, aiming to assess the economic feasibility and sustainability of integrating nanomaterials into the microalgal biodiesel production process (BlancoCanqui, 2010). As the global demand for sustainable energy sources continues to rise, microalgae have emerged as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production due to their high lipid content and rapid growth rates. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to enhance various stages of the microalgal biodiesel production chain, from cultivation and harvesting to lipid extraction and conversion (Moustakas et al., 2020).This introduction provides an overview of the key objectives, methodologies, and implications of conducting a TEA on nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel. It outlines the significance of integrating nanomaterials into biodiesel production processes, highlights the potential benefits and challenges associated with nanotechnology adoption, and sets the stage for the subsequent analysis of economic factors and technical considerations (Borowitzka and Moheimani, 2013).The introduction also discusses the broader context of sustainable energy transition and the role of microalgal biodiesel as a renewable alternative to conventional fossil fuels (Gaurav et al., 2017). It emphasizes the importance of evaluating not only the technical feasibility but also the economic viability and environmental sustainability of nanotechnology-enabled biodiesel production methods. By conducting a comprehensive TEA, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the cost-effectiveness, scalability, and market potential of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel, informing strategic decision-making and investment priorities in the renewable energy sector (Gouveia and Oliveira, 2009; McCollum et al., 2018). Through interdisciplinary collaboration and rigorous analysis, the TEA seeks to advance our understanding of the economic and technological factors shaping the future of sustainable biofuel production.

16.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end user’s have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgement approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IRPE project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “financial” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple wards, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

The agricultural sector is undergoing a transformative revolution driven by technological advancements. This article provides an in-depth exploration of how modern technologies are reshaping farming practices, enhancing productivity, and promoting sustainability. Key innovations such as precision agriculture, biotechnology, automation, and digital farming tools are discussed in detail. The article examines the benefits and challenges associated with these technologies, their impact on different aspects of farming, and the future potential of continued technological integration in agriculture. It highlights the critical role that technology plays in meeting the global food demand, addressing climate change, and ensuring economic viability for farmers.

Abstract

Nutrition is basic to sustainable development being concerned with ensuring food at all times in terms of quality and quantity. As a bridge between food and health it interlinks several variables such as environment and protection from illness and disease, which helps to lead to an optimal quality life. Despite the substantial progress made in India’s food production, serious nutritional challenges continue to threaten her development in human resource development more so rural women are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition. Poor nutritional status of women during adolescence and their resultant vulnerability to anaemia during pregnancy contributes to a higher level of low birth weight children and if it happens to be girl child then the vicious cycle continues. Although food is available through markets at the district and village level, food security at the house hold level becomes a challenge because of lack of purchasing power. Women contribute significantly to agriculture production; on an average their contribution will be around 55-65 per cent. Hence, conscious effort is needed to develop an intervention strategy. One such strategy would be empowerment of women through transfer of technology, which will help in income generation especially during lean agriculture seasons. Priority areas in the field of nutrition for technology transfer would be processing, preservation and value addition of agro based crops. However, training is required for skill upgrading and capacity building of women.

Technological change has been the major driving force for increasing agricultural productivity and promoting agriculture development across the world. In the past, the choice of technologies and their adoption was to increase production, productivity and farm incomes. Over many decades, policies for agriculture, trade, research and development, education, training and advice have been strong influences on the choice of technology, the level of agricultural production and farm practices. Agricultural production today faces several challenges: an increasing world population has to be fed, but at the same time the environment and animal welfare need to be protected. Globalisation has led to increasing international competition, while the agricultural sector is also under heavy economic pressure as a result of regulation. These conditions can perhaps only be met by innovation, be it on the technological or on the systems-level (OECD, 2001). Agriculture is becoming more integrated in the agro-food chain and the global market, while environmental, food safety and quality, and animal welfare regulations are also increasingly impacting on the sector. It is faced with new challenges to meet growing demands for food, to be internationally competitive and to produce agricultural products of high quality. At the same time, it must meet sustainability goals in the context of on-going agricultural policy reform, further trade liberalization and the implementation of multilateral environmental agreements as agreed to by the government.

India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 24% share in the global production. During 201011, the total production was 18.09 million tonnes from an area of 25.6 million hectare (Table 1). The important pulse crops grown in India are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and fieldpea (5%). The major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, which together account for about 80% of the total production. The pulses production does not keep pace with the domestic requirement and consequently, the nation has to import 23 million tonnes and the per capita availability of pulses has declined progressively from 41.6 g in 1990 to 37 g in 2008 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 gm/day/capita). Thus, increasing production from the current level poses a serious challenge for the nation.

Even with the best of efforts, pulses production and productivity has more or less remained stagnant. Due to the low productivitylow input nature, pulses are grown as residual/alternative crops on marginal lands after taking care of food/income needs from high productivityhigh input crops like rice and wheat by most farmers. Also, they grow as rainfed crops with little or no modern yield enhancing inputs. The low priority accorded to pulse crops may be related to their relatively low status in the cropping system. As a crop of secondary importance, in many of these systems, pulse crops do not attract much of the farmer’s crop management attention. In deficient soils, the application of micronutrients has also been found to be remunerative, yet the farmers hardly use these inputs. Seeds of newly developed varieties are not available to the farmers in the required quantities. As a result the seed replacement rate is hardly about 2 to 5%. In addition to this, these crops are adversely affected by a number of biotic and abiotic stresses, which are responsible for reduced yield. Lack of onfarm storage facilities and the vulnerability of pulses to store grain pests also results in considerable losses. Stray cattle and blue bulls are responsible for a lot of damage to the pulse crops especially during offseason, thus affecting adversely the cultivation of crops like mungbean, urdbean, pigeonpea, fieldpea and lentil in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana also resulting in instability and low yields.

Introduction

The biggest issue that humanity is currently facing is climate change. due to the increasing use of conventional energy sources. As a result, people all around the world are turning to affordable, clean renewable energy sources. These energy sources include biomass, tidal, solar, and wind energy. All of these energy sources, meanwhile, come with a unique set of challenges (Jeyasubramanian et al., 2021)particulate matter, carbon monoxide, etc. which influence a lot of environmental issues that are hazardous to all living beings including humans. One of the useful methods of using crop residues is in the form of biochar obtained after employing thermo-chemical routes. Apart from the crop residues, the carbon rich contents obtained from forest, animal compost, waste plastics, etc., can be heated in oxygen starved atmosphere, that left char having enriched carbon and trace amount of minerals finds extensive applications in agriculture, especially to make soil more fertile, as a carbon sequestration agent, increases crops yields, etc. This review focuses on the synthetic strategies adopted to obtain biochar, and the numerous applications in various fields. Further, the interactions involved in between the host–guest molecules are explained using computational studies like Density Functional Theory, Artificial Neural Network analysis, Machine Learning methods, and Visual MINTEQ program.