eChapters

The crops are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

Weather and climate have also great influence on farm animal production. The environment in which an animal lives is referred to as its habitat. A habitat includes both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the animals’ environment. Abiotic components of an animal’s environment include temperature, humidity, oxygen, wind, soil composition, day length and elevation. These potential environmental stressors can directly and adversely affect animal farming. The indirect consequences of weather include their impact on feed quality and availability.

Abstract

India has diversified agro-climatic conditions with significant variability in climatic factors viz, rainfall pattern, temperature, humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed etc. A no of fruit crops and vegetable crops are grown in India with significant differences in climatic requirements for sustainable growth and production of these crops. Attempt has also been made to have off season production of horticultural crops. Weather variability could also play a pivotal role in disease and pest incidence. So, forecasting of yield along with disease pest incidence should be given top priority to save the crop from weather vagaries and increase the crop productivity.

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially. Crop management is therefore very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

Climatic statistics applies quantitative methods to weather and climate observations, transforming raw records into information for forecasting, planning and resource management. This chapter explains how averages, variability, distribution, trends and extremes describe climatic behaviour over time and space. It introduces climate normals, measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, data quality, missing-value treatment, homogenization and outlier detection. Statistical interpretation helps distinguish short-term weather fluctuations from long-term climatic patterns. In agriculture, these techniques support crop planning, drought assessment, rainfall characterization and risk management. The chapter establishes the statistical foundation required for scientifically examining climate variability and its influence on crops, ecosystems and agricultural resources.

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Abstract

Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Abstract

Pest damage is an age old problem of Indian agriculture. The increased accumulation of green house gases always changes the climatic conditions that have potential effects in increasing pest population.  The insect pests are cold-blooded animals and their body temperature varies with the surrounding temperature. Thus, any change in the climate and weather is bound to influence the activity of pests. The pests are directly influenced by temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and other environmental factors in terms of their occurrence, development, reproduction, distribution, migration and adaptation. In many cases the insect out breaks which classified as gradient out breaks are not self-driven but are entirely dependent on external environmental conditions. For example, the number of aphids has frequently been shown to be correlated with several environmental factors. Such correlations indicate an understanding of aphid out breaks. The increased temperature as a result of climate change has several implications for agricultural pests. These are as follows: (i) changes in population growth rates, (ii) increased number of generations, (iii) extension of development season, (iv) extension of geographical range, (v) increased over wintering, (vi) changes in crop-pest synchrony, (vii) changes in interspecific interactions, (vii) increased risk of invasion by migrant pests, (ix) introduction of alternate hosts, and (x) availability of over wintering hosts.

Clonal crops belong to at least 34 families including herbs, shrubs, trees and vines. Clonal crop improvement dates back to 10,000 years ago. The diversity of clonal crops and their wild relatives are very significant but not yet fully understood and exploited. Many crops represent combination of sexual and clonal reproduction. Different parts of the clonal crops which may or may not be the same as consumed parts have been shaped as clonal propagules such as stem, setts, tuber, rhizome, corms and bulbs among others.

Clouds play very important role on weather and climate. The formation of clouds takes place when water condenses in the sky. Clouds are visible accumulation of tiny water droplets and ice crystals in the Earth’s atmosphere. The moisture is always present in the atmosphere though it may not be visible. Clouds form when air becomes cooler until the water vapour present in it condenses to liquid form. The condensation over oceans occurs around solid particles like salt, dust, smoke etc. suspended in the atmosphere. The type of clouds depends upon temperature and wind. The clouds are classified based on physical appearance and the height at which clouds are formed (Fig. 7.1).

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 µm to 50 µm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 µm radius to over 10 µm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 million. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain. Clouds complete the following functions.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth‘s weather and climatesystems. This chapter, „cloud formation and classification,“ will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds. Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation. By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth’s weather and climate systems. This chapter, “cloud formation and classification,” will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds.
Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation.
By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of Earth’s weather and climate systems. This chapter, “Cloud Formation and Classification,” will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized. The essential ingredients for cloud formation are the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will look into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds. Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus. Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation. In the end of the chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form, the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.
5.1 Clouds
Clouds are visible masses of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the Earth’s atmosphere. These droplets or crystals are so small and light that

Cloud usually consists of very small droplets of water which cannot fall appreciably below the cloud base without evaporation. In this condition clouds are stable. Rain drops are about a million times heavier than cloud drops and rain develops only if the cloud droplets grow by some mechanism. Cloud Seeding mechanism depends on the difference in vapour pressure over ice and super cooled cloud, water evaporates of the droplets and migrate to the ice crystal, which grows and begins to fall increasing their growth rate by coalescence with other droplets and eventually melting and falling as rain drops. Presence of ice nuclei determines whether ice crystals form in a supercoold cloud or not. Ice crystals form on naturally occurring nuclei at temperatures of – 10⁰ to 30⁰ C. At warmer temperatures, either the efficient ice-forming nuclei are often deficient in the atmosphere or the cloud may occur with tops supercooled but not to an extent which activates the ice nuclei available. It should be possible to initiate precipitation by introducing ice crystals or by supplying artificial nuclei.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 µm to 50 µm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 µm radius to over 10 µm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain. Clouds are essential to the earth-atmosphere system. They complete the following functions.

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 μm to 50 μm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 μm radius to over 10 μm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On an average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain.

10.1. Co-operative marketing

Private agencies dominate Indian food grains trade.

High marketing charges and prevalence of malpractices.

Progress of regulated markets is not uniform in all areas.

Need for strengthening co-operative organization in marketing of farmers produce and supply inputs at right price and time.

Coastal areas are defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries.

Economic importance of coastal areas

Many of the world’s major cities are located in coastal areas, and a large portion of economic activities are concentrated in these cities. The coastal zone is an area of convergence of activities in urban centres, such as shipping in major ports, and wastes generated from domestic sources and by major industrial facilities. Many of the world’s most productive agricultural areas are located in river deltas and coastal plains, which contribute for national economic growth.

Introduction

India contains around 7517 km of coast line, which is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to its south. The Indian Coastal ecosystem, where land and water join to create an environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and f low of energy. They include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different types of plants and animals. (Marale. 2013). The geographic and land use details of Indian coastal zone is presented in Table 1.

Coastal ecosystems of india

India has a long coastline of 7,517 km that span 13 maritime states and union territories, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million square kilometers. The country has a diverse range of habitats: continental area and offshore islands and a variety of coastal ecosystems such as estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes, sea grass beds, backwaters, rocky coasts, mudf lats, sand dunes, and coastal beaches. Coasts and islands form 2.8% of India’s geographical area. The coastal ecosystem consists of 43,230 km² of coastal wetlands with 97 major estuaries and 34 major lagoons; 4921 km² of mangroves with 31 mangrove areas, and 3062.97 km² of coral reefs with 5 coral reef areas (MoEFCC, 2018). A network of 14 major, 44 medium and numerous minor rivers together with their tributaries with a total length of over 40,000 km, contribute to the coastal sea directly or indirectly. By area, tidal/mudf lats are predominant and by length, more than half of the Indian coastline is sandy. The states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have extensive coastline (Fig. 1).

Abstract

The area of study extends about 65 km from Gamasa City to Burg El-Burullus. The coastal sand dunes are very near to the shoreline in Baltim and El-Burg and far from the shoreline in Gamasa. It is narrow with relatively steep slope northward near Burg El-Burullus and Baltim, while it increases in width eastward to become wide with gentle slope near Gamasa. The coastal sand dunes are very mobile and move toward the agricultural lands, roads (international coastal road), resorts, and other developmental activities. The sand dunes in the study area are classified into two categories, the old fixed dunes and recent mobile dunes. The main directions of wind blow are N, W, and NW directions. It causes the movement of mobile dunes (Barchan and longitudinal). Several methods have been used for dune fixation like the tar spraying, wind fences and stones. Wind fences are not costly and nonpolluting if compared with stonewall and tar spraying, which prevent the land utilization for agricultural purposes.

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

Biometric observations

The phenological stages i.e. germination, tasseling, silking, and physiological maturity were recorded from fixed mid three rows of each plot. A particular stage was supposed to be completed while 90% of the observed plant showed the characteristics of that phase and number of days was counted from date of sowing.

Days to emergence (DOE)
 
When the plant shoot pokes through the soil surface. Count the 75% seedlings emerged from at least 50% of the total rows starting from the centre. If 75% of the total expected seedlings emerged, then can be considered as 75% emergence. How the growth stages of maize are distinguished can be observed from the chart below.

Soil sample collection is the first and most important step for soil quality analysis. A soil sample collected with due care and proper procedure is essential for getting reliable result of the analysis. The sample should represent the field and for practical purposes, an area of about 0.5 hectare is considered as one sampling unit. In case of conspicuous variation observed in the field in terms of texture, colour, slope etc, separate samples should be collected from areas differing in these attributes. In other words, sample should be collected from an area in the field with similar characteristics as seen through normal visual observation. Sampling should thus be avoided from areas like near trees, permanent vegetations, manure pits, manure piles or recently fertilized fields.

Soil Sampling procedure

1. For a particular field unit, one composite soil sample is prepared out of the samples collected from 7-8 spots distributed across the field unit. The entire field is covered by moving in a zig-zag manner from each sampling spot.
2. For each sampling point or spot, scrapping off the surface litter such as grasses or crop residues is done. Then, a “V” shaped pit of 15-20 cm length and of equal width is made. Depth of sampling depends upon the requirement and on the type of crop. For field crops like paddy, wheat etc, samples are collected from 15 cm depth. From the “V” shaped pits, take outslice of ½ inch thickness from both sides of the exposed pit surfaces from top to bottom.
3. The soil samples so collected from the 7-8 points are mixed thoroughly by hand and then is reduced to about 500 g by quartering process. The quartering process consists of a procedure in which the entire soil mass is divided into four quarters; the two opposite ones are discarded and the remaining two are remixed. This process is repeated till about 500g soil is obtained.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

Precise collection and processing of soil sample is the first and foremost step for carrying out any soil study, therefore it is essential to collect the coil sample very accurately keeping in view the variations in slope, colour and texture of the soil management aspects. Soil sampling should be avoided from non-representative sites like recently fertilized plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts and spots near trees, wells, compost piles etc. It should be kept in mind that erroneous samples will never yield accurate result in spite of very improved method of analysis. The depth of sampling may vary according to the need of soil study and extent of rhizosphere. However, in general the sampling depth for field crops is the plough layer (0 - 15 cm) but it could be up to one meter or as per the purpose of the study. Soil samples in dry farming areas should be taken depth wise as the roots of the crops in this conditions reaches to deeper layers in search of water and nutrients.

Mainly two types of soil samples (disturbed and undisturbed) are used for determining the physical properties of soil. The disturbed soil samples are used for determination of particle size distribution, particle density, aggregation, column studies for diffusion-dispersion coefficients and soil-water diffusivity. Whereas, undisturbed (core) soil samples are used for the estimation of bulk density, porosity, retention and transmission characteristics of air and water.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

1.1. Sources of Error in Soil Chemical Analysis

Different sources of error involved starting from soil sampling to chemical analysis of a sample can be divided into three main groups:

1. Sampling error : This error results from variability among the different samples drawn from same soil unit with respect to the objective of sampling.
2. Sub-sampling error : This error is due to variability introduced among sub samples of the same soil sample.
3. Analytical error : This error introduced due to variability from one chemical determination to another on same sub sample.

Understanding the principles involved in plant growth and development is prime important for managing agronomic practices for higher productivity of dryland crops sustainably. Systematic study of plant growth based on the variability and interpreting plant development based on biometric methods is called as growth analysis. Plant data in turn biometric data is collected from the field and analysed over the period to know the growth condition of the plants. Based on biometric data, agronomic practices like application of fertilizers, irrigation and weed management practices were employed. Several growth indices are devised for identifying environmental or genetic factors as sources of variation in plants. Both whole plant and their component organs (leaf) are basis for calculating growth indices.

The most common parameters used in growth analysis are leaf area index, crop growth rate, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate and leaf area duration.

Soil testing identifies various constraints in soil that limit crop production. Fertilizer recommendation and soil management practices to be adopted are based on the soil test report. Soil testing starts with collection of soil samples from the field
and ends with interpretation of soil test results leading to necessary recommendations for increasing crop production.

This chapter explains how representative soil samples should be collected, labelled, transported and prepared for analysis. It identifies essential sampling equipment, including spades, khurpis, augers, trays, sampling bags, markers and polythene sheets. The recommended procedure involves dividing land into uniform sampling units, collecting soil from several well-distributed locations and combining these portions into a composite sample. The chapter describes V-shaped sampling cuts, suitable sampling depths and sample reduction through quartering. It also lists the field information that should accompany each sample. Procedures for air-drying, grinding, sieving and mixing samples are presented, together with precautions for avoiding unusual areas and contamination.

Abstract

An experiment was conducted in two replications with seventy germplasm lines during kharif 2012 at College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur. The germplasm included 30 local varieties from different parts of Karnataka and 40 lines collected from AICRP, Jabalpur. Each entry was sown in three lines of 4 m length with 30 cm x10 cm spacing. Out of seventy lines sixty two entries were germinated. These lines were evaluated for seed yield and other ancillary characteristics viz., days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of primary branches, number of capitula, number of seeds per capitulum and seed yield. Among them, six entries performed better than check variety No. 71 and 12 entries performed better than another check variety RCR 18. Among all the entries N-84 (238.89 kg/ha) and SD-33 (215.28 kg/ha) produced high yield. Hadagali local and No. 71 (51.5 days) were found earliest in flowering and maturing varieties and SP 141 was late in flowering (71 days) and late in maturing. Tavaregere local (66.5 cm) and SP134 had less plant height (67.5 cm) and BMD 127 had highest (113.5 cm) plant height. The number of primary branches was more in the genotype Humnabad local (12.5). Number of capsules per plant was more in Humnabad local and ICP 76 (53.0) and number of seeds per capsule were more in BMD 115 (77.0).

Water colour is consequences of the plankton, humus, metal ions (iron and manganese), weeds and peat materials, presence in water. Iron oxides cause reddish color whereas Manganese oxides causes brown or brackish colour in water. Water colour of an aquatic body also indicates the density of planktons. Brownish colouration without any foul smell is an indication of good growth of zooplankton. Phytoplankton or algae are usually green in colour and these green alage in large quantities turn the green color of water. Water color suggests plankton or other aquatic life growth, clear and transparent colour of water indicates low and poor growth of plankton. Brownish green to greenish brown colour of water indicates well for aquaculture.
Principle
Natural waters colour comprising yellow-brownish in appearance. It has been observed that potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl2) tinted with small amounts of CoCl2 yield colours that are very much like the natural colours of water. 1 mg/L of Pt (K2PtCl6) produces a standard 1 unit of colour. The intensity of colour increases as pH rises. For this reason recording pH together with colour is advisable.

Predatory journals undermine the integrity of academic publishing by charging exorbitant fees without providing rigorous peer review. These deceptive entities exploit the academic community, especially targeting early-career researchers, those from underfunded institutions, and scholars in developing countries. By prioritizing profit over quality, predatory journals erode trust in the research ecosystem, dilute scientific knowledge, and tarnish the reputation of genuine academic endeavors (Fig. 11.1).
This chapter delves into the multifaceted challenges posed by predatory journals and outlines comprehensive strategies for researchers, institutions, and policymakers to combat their pernicious effects.
11.1. Understanding Predatory Journals
Predatory journals are characterized by their lack of transparency, absence of editorial rigor, and aggressive solicitation of authors. They often masquerade as legitimate open-access journals but fail to adhere to the ethical standards of scholarly publishing. Unlike reputable journals, which uphold rigorous peer-review processes to ensure the validity and originality of research, predatory journals accept articles with minimal or no scrutiny. This results in the dissemination of low-quality or even fraudulent research, undermining the credibility of academic literature.
Several red flags can help researchers identify predatory journals. These include:

To achieve maximum possible irrigation efficiencies, there are two approaches.

Modernization of conveyance system down below the reservoirs upto government controlled outlet. Involves mainly the construction and maintenance of head sluices, main canals, branch canals, and distributaries (Modernization of supplier’s side or system level development works)

Modernization below the government controlled outlets upto the drains (Modernization of user’s side or farm level development works). Also known as On-Farm Development Works (OFD).

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Commercial farming is an increasingly vital component of agricultural development strategies in many states. State governments often implement various livelihood models aimed at promoting commercial farming to enhance agricultural productivity, boost local economies, and improve farmers’ livelihoods. Here are some common commercial farming-based livelihood models that state governments may employ:
1. Cooperative Farming
• Description: Farmers form cooperatives to pool resources, share equipment, and access larger markets. This model strengthens bargaining power and reduces costs.
• Government Role: States may provide technical assistance, financial support, and facilitate access to markets.
2. Contract Farming
• Description: Farmers enter into agreements with corporations or buyers for the production of specific crops. This model often guarantees a market for the farmers’ produce.
• Government Role: Facilitation of contracts, monitoring compliance, and providing legal support.
3. Agribusiness Incubators
• Description: Establishing incubators to support startups in the agricultural sector, providing mentorship, training, and resources for innovative farming techniques.
• Government Role: Funding, infrastructure support, and partnerships with educational institutions.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed various commercial farming-based livelihood models to enhance the income of farmers, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and improve the overall
socio-economic conditions in rural areas. While specific models may vary by region and crop, here are some key features and themes observed in ICAR’s initiatives:
1. Integrated Farming System (IFS) Models
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a wide range of Integrated Farming System (IFS) models tailored to various agroclimatic zones of India. These models aim to enhance farm productivity,
ensure sustainable livelihood, and improve resource use efficiency by integrating different components like crops, livestock, poultry, fishery, horticulture, agroforestry, etc.
Key Objectives of ICAR’s IFS Models
• Enhance income and employment from small and marginal holdings.
• Ensure year-round productivity and food security.
• Recycle resources within the farm to minimize external input dependency.
• Promote sustainability through organic integration and ecological balance.

The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) plays a pivotal role in strengthening India’s rural economy by facilitating credit flow, infrastructure development, and livelihood enhancement in agriculture
and allied sectors. Among its many initiatives, the promotion of commercial farming-based livelihood models stands out as a dynamic and sustainable approach to empower rural communities—especially small and marginal
farmers, tribal populations, and rural women. These livelihood models are scientifically designed, economically viable, and socially inclusive, aiming to generate income, create rural employment, and ensure food and nutritional security. They also align with national programs like the Doubling Farmers’ Income mission, National Livestock Mission, PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, and the Agri-Infra Fund.
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in India has been instrumental in promoting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing rural livelihoods through various commercial farming-based
livelihood models. These models aim to empower farmers, increase production efficiency, and ensure better income through diversified agricultural practices. Here are some of the notable initiatives and models promoted by NABARD:
1. Dairy Farming as a Commercial Livelihood
Dairy farming is one of the most prominent models promoted by NABARD. Small dairy units with 2–10 crossbred cows or buffaloes are encouraged under schemes such as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
(DEDS). These units produce milk daily, generating regular income, and provide by-products like dung for compost or biogas. NABARD facilitates credit through banks and provides back-ended subsidies, especially for SHGs, youth, and women farmers. Technical training on fodder management, disease control, and scientific milking practices is also provided.

Across India, various NGOs have developed and implemented innovative commercial farming-based livelihood models aimed at improving the economic status of rural communities. These models often focus on sustainable
agricultural practices, value addition, and market linkages. Here are a few noteworthy examples:
1. BAIF Development Research Foundation
• BAIF has implemented programs focused on dairy farming, agroforestry,  and watershed management. They provide training, resource support, and market access to farmers, optimizing their income through diversified
agricultural activities.
2. Pradan (Professional Assistance for Development Action):
• Pradan works primarily in tribal and backward regions, focusing on enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting non-farm livelihoods. They encourage the use of traditional knowledge, organic farming, and community-based seed banks, facilitating sustainable farming practices.
3. Sambhaavnaa Institute of Public Policy
• This organization focuses on promoting organic farming and the production of high-value crops. They empower local farmers by training them in organic agriculture techniques, enhancing market access for their produce, and developing cooperatives for collective bargaining.

In the Asian and Pacific ‘region, it is China alone which produces the largest quantities of agricultural waste and also crop residues. This is followed by India. From the production of rice, corn and wheat alone 587 million tons of residues are generated per year in China. Maheshwari (2014) has surveyed the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products. In Myanmar the crop waste and residues constitute about 4 million tons per year out of which more than half constitutes rice husk.

Mushrooms are fleshy fungi constituting a purely vegetarian diet, which is very tasty and nutritious. Some mushrooms are edible whereas others are poisonous. So far, more than 1600 types of mushrooms are known of which, nearly 100 have been accepted as food worldwide. Diversification in any farming system imparts sustainability. Mushrooms are one such component that not only impart diversification but also help in addressing the problems of quality food, health and environment related issues. One of the major areas that can contribute towards goal of conservation of natural resources as well as increased productivity is recycling of agro-wastes including agro-industrial waste. Utilising these wastes for growing mushrooms can enhance income and impart higher level of sustainability (Manjit Singh et al., 2011).

Mushroom cultivation activities can play an important role in supporting the local economy by contributing to subsistence food security, nutrition, generating additional employment and income through local, regional and national trade; and also offering opportunities for processing enterprises. Among the 33 globally cultivated types of mushrooms 3 mushrooms i.e. white button, oyster and paddy straw mushrooms are popularly grown in India.