eChapters

1. Introduction
Soil salinity is a global threat which affects crop production and poses challenges to sustainable development in various regions worldwide. Worldwide, salinity and sodicity impact 20% of cultivated land and 33% of irrigated land, respectively (Kumar and Sharma, 2020). Global map of salt–affected soil (SAS) indicated that 0.424 billion hectares of upper soil layer (0–0.3 m) and 0.833 billion hectares of subsoil layer (0.30–1 m) are salt-affected (FAO, 2021) and by 2050, salinization will degrade 50% of agricultural land (Wang et al., 2003). In India, SAS currently occupy 2.1% of total geographical area. Among the SAS, 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Narjary et al., 2024). Due to salinity and sodicity, yearly 16.8 million megagram of agricultural produce are wasted in India, costing of ? 230.2 billion (Sharma et al., 2015).
Salt–affected soils are a significant concern in several regions of India. These soils contain high level of sodium salts (NaCl, Na2SO4, NaHCO3, Na2CO3) which adversely affect soil fertility and crop productivity. Here are some areas in India known to have salt–affected soils:
1. Indo–Gangetic Plain: The Indo–Gangetic Plain, spanning across states like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of West Bengal, is prone to salinity issues. Over–irrigation, poor drainage, the presence of salt containing parent materials in the lithology and use of saline irrigation have contributed to soil salinity.
2. Coastal Regions: Coastal regions in India, such as parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karela, Odisha and Andaman and Nicobar Islands experience salinity problems due to sea water intrusion and the presence of coastal saline soils. These soils are affected by high levels of sodium chloride and other salts, making them unsuitable for cultivation of most arable crops.
3. Arid and Semi–Arid Regions: Arid and semi–arid regions, including areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, face the risk of soil salinization due to low rainfall, high evaporation rates, and poor– quality irrigation water. Waterlogging in these regions can also lead to soil salinization.
4. Irrigation Command Areas: Certain irrigation command areas in different states, including Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, have witnessed salinity problems as a result of improper water management, excessive irrigation, and inadequate drainage infrastructure.

Introduction

Wheat is pre-eminent both in regard to its antiquity and its importance as a food of mankind in the world. In prehistoric times, it was cultivated throughout Europe and was one of the most valuable cereals of ancient Persia, Greece and Egypt. Wheat has been cultivated for several thousand years in India with the evidence of presence of wheat grains in the Mohen-Jo-Daro excavations. Till 1947, the total wheat production was only about 6 million tonnes and was not sufficient to meet the demand, leading to large scale importation of wheat. Subsequently production increased due to an increase in both total cropped and irrigated area. Wheat crop has exhibited a robust growth trend since the onset of the ‘green revolution’ in 1968. India, one of the greatest success stories of ‘green revolution’, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. During 2018-19 (Fig. 1) India produced a record breaking 101.20 million tonnes of wheat from 29.62 million ha area indicating 3.42 tonnes/ha wheat yield (ICAR-IIWBR, 2019). On the other hand, India is also the second largest wheat consumer after China. Thus, wheat and its various products play an increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and India became the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. The tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 2.9, 12.2 and 4.2 times, respectively as compared to 1950 has made India (Table 1) the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries (Workman, 2018).

The demand of day by day increasing population there is lacking of nutritious food to peoples all around world. Underutilized crops like small or minor millets are having more nutrition and providing calories up to 2000 to 3000 calories per person per day than our staple crops i.e wheat, rice, and maize etc. Small Millets are the most underutilized crop in the world possessing high nutrient-cereal qualities and potential for the improvement of food security, nation income and generate the employment for the rural peoples. Millets are rich in nutrients such as proteins, fibers, carbohydrates, fats, vitamin-B, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, potassium, and zinc etc.They are highly nutritive crop, non-acid forming, glutan free and help in reducing blood sugar level, blood pressure, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. They also help in preventing asthma and migraines sufferings and fighting malnutrition in children s and adults.S mall millets are considered the forgotten crop species because of lower yield compared to other millets i.e. Sorghum and Pearl millet and cereals i.e. rice, wheat, maize etc. Being a highly nutritive cereal crop, easy to digest, high fibers and low glycine-max content, environment friendly and prevent the human hazards small millets still remained neglected and underutilized crop. Out of 200 underutilized crops identified 29 are small millets species (NAS USA, ICUC). Considering the food demand of common peoples, emerging health consciousness and nutrient demand for food security emerged small millets to limelight because of ecologically sound to climate. Still, the harvest of crop demands combination of computational technologies to full-fill food needs of population. Recognizing the potential of small millets in improving the national income UN-FAO announced the year 2023 as International Year of Millets. This chapter focused on application of climate smart agricultural methods such as artificial intelligence for the improvement of small millets to achieve future food security.

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

The age-old struggle between crops and diseases has been a perpetual challenge for farmers and agricultural stakeholders worldwide. Weather patterns play a pivotal role in the development and spread of crop diseases, making it essential to integrate weather wisdom into crop disease management strategies. By analyzing historical and real-time weather data, farmers and agricultural experts can anticipate, prepare for, and respond to disease outbreaks more effectively, minimizing crop losses and ensuring food security. Effective crop disease management based on weather wisdom involves a three-pronged approach. It begins with caution, where historical climate data and disease surveillance reports are analyzed to identify potential correlations between weather patterns and disease outbreaks. This information helps farmers and agricultural experts to recognize early warning signs of disease susceptibility, such as temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, and humidity levels. For instance, excessive rainfall can lead to an increased risk of fungal diseases, while drought conditions can exacerbate bacterial diseases (Fig. 13.1). The confirmation phase involves closely monitoring real-time weather forecasts and disease surveillance data to detect early warning signs of an impending disease outbreak. Advanced technologies, such as satellite imaging and sensor-based monitoring systems, provide valuable insights into crop health and disease development. By combining these data streams, farmers and agricultural experts can confirm the presence of disease-causing pathogens and take targeted action to prevent their spread. Finally, a call to action is triggered, prompting farmers and agricultural stakeholders to implement integrated disease management strategies. These may include cultural practices, such as crop rotation and sanitation, biological controls, such as introducing beneficial microorganisms, and chemical controls, such as targeted fungicide applications. By leveraging weather wisdom, farmers can optimize their disease management strategies, reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides and minimizing environmental impact. By embracing weather wisdom, crop disease management can be transformed from a reactive to a proactive approach. Farmers and agricultural stakeholders can stay one step ahead of disease-causing pathogens, protecting their crops and ensuring a stable food supply. As we explore the intersection of weather wisdom and crop disease management, it becomes clear that this integrated approach holds tremendous potential for revolutionizing the way we predict, prevent, and respond to crop diseases.
13.1 Caution
Approaches to Caution Farmers on Crop Diseases, Information Generation, and Communication using Mobile Technology To caution farmers on crop diseases, it is essential to adopt a multi-faceted approach that leverages mobile technology to generate and disseminate critical information. This approach should focus on empowering farmers with timely and accurate information, enabling them to take proactive measures to prevent and manage crop diseases. Firstly, a robust disease surveillance system should be established to monitor and track crop disease outbreaks in real-time. This can be achieved through a network of field scouts, extension agents, and research institutions that report disease incidence and severity to a central database. Mobile-based applications can be used to facilitate data collection, transmission, and analysis, ensuring that critical information is captured and disseminated promptly. Once disease outbreaks are detected, mobile technology can be harnessed to generate and disseminate alerts to farmers. This can be achieved through Short Message Service (SMS) or voice messages, which can be sent to farmers’ mobile phones, warning them of potential disease risks and providing advice on management strategies. Mobile-based applications can also be used to push disease alerts, advisories, and management recommendations to farmers, ensuring that they receive critical information in a timely and accessible manner. To enhance the effectiveness of these alerts, it is essential to ensure that they are tailored to the specific needs and contexts of farmers. This can be achieved

During recent time, world agriculture is in search of sustainability in farming. However, it is tedious job for the developing countries because of poor input management and degradation of resources, ever-growing human population and increasing demand for food and livestock feed, and shrinkage of land and other natural resources.

Age old practice of photography was taken with still camera in parallel direction, not aerially scan or snapping which really present wider prospective of any object or places in rearranging or planning skilfully in two dimensional working. Earlier aeroplane played a important role in over head condition to capture snaps but again accuracy and angle of camera limited the works because these photographs were diagonally or trigonally not matched the reality of ground.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

9.1.AGMARK

‘Ag’ means agriculture and ‘mark’ means certification mark.

Certifying agency: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India

Effective region: India

Effective since: 1986

Product category: Agricultural products

Agribusiness and entrepreneurship in the 21st century are evolving rapidly due to technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and the increasing focus on sustainability. This article delves into the dynamic landscape of modern agribusiness, examining the innovations driving growth and the challenges that entrepreneurs face. It explores key trends such as digital agriculture, sustainable practices, and value chain integration, highlighting the role of startups and established companies in transforming the industry. The article also addresses the economic, social, and environmental impacts of agribusiness and provides insights into the future of agricultural entrepreneurship. By understanding these developments, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of the contemporary agricultural sector and capitalize on emerging opportunities.

Abstract
The village Kakching Khunou of Thoubal District, Manipur is found highly suitable for Watermelon cultivation. Mr. Thokchom Nganthoi Singh a young
farmer who is a novice in agri-business proved to be successful agri-business of watermelon in Kakching Khunou. The study noted that prominent extension approach was of farmer-to-farmer extension while venturing the enterprise. The total cost for cultivation of watermelon was around `50000-60000/- per Ha with a profit of ` 1,50,000/- per Ha. In three years (2016-18) the farmer mark as success in cultivation of watermelon and also started cultivating cucumber and other vegetable crops in his small farm successfully.
Keywords: Watermelon, Agri-business, Farmer, Kakching Khunou
Introduction
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), family Cucurbitaceae originated from West- Africa augurs well as a very promising scrambler and trailer fruit plant.

Introduction 
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a transformative force in agriculture, significantly enhancing access to information, improving productivity, and promoting sustainable practices. The integration of ICT tools facilitates the dissemination of critical agricultural knowledge, enabling farmers to make informed decisions regarding planting, pest control, and market trends. This technological advancement is particularly beneficial for small-scale farmers who often face challenges in accessing timely and relevant information. ICT platforms such as mobile phones and radios play a crucial role in providing small-scale farmers with access to essential agricultural input information, aiding them in making informed decisions (Fosu & Giba-Fosu, 2024). Furthermore, ICT tools, including e-learning platforms and mobile applications, have revolutionized agricultural extension services by providing direct access to advisory services and expert knowledge. The use of social media and mobile communication has also improved interactions between farmers and agricultural experts, thereby increasing the effectiveness of extension programs (Bhat et al., 2024). The advent of digital and smart agriculture, supported by ICT, incorporates technologies such as remote sensing, precision agriculture, and automated machinery to optimize farming practices and reduce labor dependency (Yoe, 2024). Agri-informatics, a specialized branch of ICT in agriculture, leverages emerging technologies like Big Data and the Internet of Things (IoT) to develop sophisticated agricultural systems, promoting smart farming practices (Jena, 2024). While ICT provides numerous advantages, challenges such as infrastructural limitations, economic constraints, and disparities in digital literacy hinder its widespread adoption. Addressing these barriers through policy interventions and capacity-building initiatives is crucial for maximizing the potential of ICT in agriculture. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly integrated into agriculture to address contemporary challenges such as climate change, population growth, and the demand for sustainable food production. AI applications in soil and crop monitoring, predictive analytics, and agricultural robotics are gaining attraction, assisting farmers in data collection and analysis (Smith, 2020; Gupta et al., 2023). Moreover, automation in agriculture, driven by AI, addresses issues such as crop diseases, irrigation management, and pest control. Techniques like IoT, machine learning, and deep learning contribute to the automation of farming practices, increasing soil fertility and productivity (Jha et al., 2019). Robotics and automated systems minimize human intervention, thereby enhancing farm efficiency and sustainability (Eli-Chukwu, 2019). The implementation of AI in agriculture yields numerous benefits, including enhanced productivity, costeffectiveness, and sustainability. AI assists in optimizing resource utilization,

India, with 118.7 million farmers, which accounts for more than half of its population, depends on agriculture as its primary source of income. However, the use of technology in the agricultural industry has been limited in India. As a result, the agriculture industry in India contributes merely 17-18% to its GDP. However, in the last couple of years, India has seen a rise in the number of agri-tech startups that are not only making technology more accessible but also helping these farmers to improve their lives. Today, we will take a look at top 10 agri-tech startups helping Indian farmers.
1. CropIn Technology (2010): Founded by Krishna Kumar and Kunal Prasad in 2010, CropIn provides one-stop SaaS-based solutions platform enabling agribusinesses to increase efficiency, productivity
and sustainability. Its platform offers real-time weather updates, ability to manage farm activities, and predicts crop yields to minimize risk and yield better produce.
2. Stellapps (2011): Founded by RanjithMukundan, Ravishankar G. Shiroor, Praveen Nale, Ramakrishna Adukuri and VenkateshSeshasayee in 2011, Stellapps helps dairy farmers and cooperatives to maximize their profits by digitizing and optimizing Milk Procurement &Coldchain Management through its IoT-based SmartMoo platform.
3. DeHaat (2012): Founded by Shashank Kumar and Amrendra Singh in 2012, DeHaat offers agricultural services like access to agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilizers at affordable prices, personalized assistance, soil testing, weather reports, micro-finance, and insurance. DeHaat has raised $19.3 million to help Indian farmers.

12.1. Agribusiness

Concept was born in Harvard University in 1957.

John David and A. Goldberg wrote a book ‘A concept of Agri-business’.

In early 1966, University of Philippines offered an Agri-Business Management (ABM) UG program.

In 1969, first Advanced Agribusiness Management seminar held in Manila.

At present producers and consumers are concerned about products and their uses. In farm sector agribusiness is gaining momentum because of marketing of farm produce and its availability to the consumers at affordable rate. Agribusiness thus has been identified as important element in improving farm business. The farm business is otherwise known as agribusiness. Agribusiness is an off farm activity mainly concerned with processing and marketing. It implies that in addition to production of farm produce farmers responsibility increases to process the out-put and its sale in the market for better price. The farmers like to approach different organizations, corporation and regulated markets. Therefore attempt has been made at government level to encourage cultivators to invest in the farm business. In order to increase the efficiency of farmers there is need of keeping the business flexible encouraging farmers to invest in farm and allied sector business.

Mushrooms have been part of fungal diversity for around 300 million years. A mushroom is a macro fungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can either be epigeous (above ground) or hypogeous (underground) and large enough to be seen by naked eye and to be picked up by hands. They lack the green matter (chlorophyll) present in plants and grow on dead and decaying organic materials, as phytoparasite or in mycorrhizal association with plants. From these decaying substrate, they absorb their nutrition with the help of fine thread like structures (mycelium), which penetrate into the substratum and are generally not visible on the surface. After the mycelium has grown profusely and absorbed sufficient food materials, it forms the reproductive structure which generally comes out of the substrate and forms fruiting body, commonly known as mushroom. Mushrooms can be divided into four categories (i) Those that are fleshy and edible fall into the edible mushroom category i.e., Agaricus bisporus; (ii) Mushroom that are considered to have medicinal applications are referred to as medicinal mushrooms i.e., Ganoderma lucidum; (iii) Those that are proved to be or poisonous or suspected of being poisonous are named poisonous mushrooms i.e., Amanita phalloides; (iv) those in a miscellaneous category, which include a large number of mushrooms whose properties remains less defined. The toxic/poisonous species commonly referred to as ‘toadstools’ are objects of fear and distrust and have led to certain amount of inhibition and taboo towards mushroom consumption.

Use of mushrooms as food by man has been practiced since time immemorial and probably predates any historical records. The early civilizations of Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Chinese and Mexican appreciated mushroom as delicacy, knew something about their therapeutic value, often used them in religious ceremonies. Greeks regarded them as strength food for warriors while Romans considered them as ‘Food of Gods’ and Chinese regarded mushrooms as ‘Elixir of life’. Much referred ‘Somrus’ in ancient Indian literature is actually a decoction of mushroom. Archeological and other accounts reveal that ancient man used mushroom in religious ceremonies. The Aztecs of South America referred mushroom as ‘teononacte’ (God’s flesh) and worshipped a group of mushrooms as being divine. The high esteem in which mushrooms were held in different civilizations is also indicated by the restriction of the use of many species to the rulers.

Currently 14000 mushroom species are known to exist. Of these about 50 % or 7000 species are considered to posses varying degrees of edibility and almost 3000 species from 31 genera are regarded as prime edible mushrooms. To date only 200 of them are experimentally grown, 100 of them economically cultivated, approximately 60 commercially cultivated and about 10 have reached to industrial scale production in many countries. Furthermore, about 2000 are medicinal mushrooms with varieties of health attributes. The number of poisonous mushroom is usually reported to be relatively small (approximately 1 %), but there is an estimate that about 10 % may have poisonous attributes while 30 species are considered to be lethal.

Abstract

The present investigation on “Agro bio-diversity and genetics of fibre characters, yield and its components in intra and inter specific hybrids of allo-tetraploid cottons (Gossypiumspp. Linn.)” was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to study the combining ability and heterosis for quality and yield characters. Further, an attempt was made to trace out best parents and crosses for future breeding programmes and also to know the gene action controlling the traits through generation mean analysis for designing appropriate breeding strategy. In this direction, seven lines and four testers were crossed in L x T design to generate 28 hybrids and evaluated with check NHH 44 to know the combining ability of parents and crosses. Since L x T design does not provide comprehensive picture on gene action governing the traits, the generation mean analysis through joint scaling test was done in four crosses for eleven characters. High PCV and GCV were recorded for number of monopodia per plant and seed cotton yield per plant and moderate estimates were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight. High heritability estimates coupled with high genetic advance were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant. Estimates of components of variance and their ratios (?2 gca/?2 sca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive gene action for days to 50 % flowering, number of monopodia per plant, number of sympodia per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant, whereas additive gene action was observed for the fiber quality traits viz., 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire value and bundle strength.