eChapters

1.1 An overview of biomass

Biomass is an abundant and renewable energy source that has the potential to meet the growing need for clean and sustainable energy solutions. This chapter provides an overview of biomass, its potential, and conversion technologies, which include various techniques for transforming biomass into useful forms of energy such as heat, electricity, and biofuels.

Biomass is an organic substance that can be obtained from agricultural crop waste, forest waste, animals, and microorganisms. It can be used as an energy source or a primary material in various applications. The energy in biomass is derived from photosynthesis, in which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into organic matter.

18.1 Introduction

The farmers have limited resources and a number of enterprises/or enterprise combinations of crops and livestock to choose from. So, the question is how much of what to produce and with what technology. In other words, what combination of enterprises should be produced is expressed as.

26.1 Introduction

In a single equation model, the dependent variable Y is expressed as a linear function of one or more explanatory variables (say X1 , X2 , ... XK ). In such models, an implicate assumption is that the cause and effect relationship between (Y, Xs) is unidirectional. Here explanatory variables are the cause and the dependent variable Y is the effect.

However, there are some situations where two way flow of influence among economic variables exists. Thus one economic variable affects other economic variables and in turn is affected by them. Thus, in the regression of money M on the rate of interest r, the single-equation method assumes implicitly that the rate of interest r is fixed and it is tried to find out the response of money demanded when the level of interest rate is changed.

25.1 Introduction

Farmers must be able to take appropriate decisions at appropriate time. Incorrect judgement and decisions will return in failure of execution of farm plan and in turn economic loss. The farm management decisions can be broadly categorised into two ways.

24.1 Introduction

Linear programming is a budgeting technique which is more refined and systematic than conventional budgeting in determining the optimum combination of enterprises or inputs so as to maximise the income or combination of enterprises or the income or minimise costs within the limits of available resources. It may be defined as “The analysis of the problem in which a linear function of a number of variables is to be maximised or minimised when these variables are subject to a number of restraints in the form of linear inequalities”, In linear programming models, the objective of the typical farm i.e maximisation of net profit or cost minimisation is achieved through an optimal plan generated from its solution.

23.1 Introduction

The following Frank Kright, the knowledge situation can be classified into the following logical possibilities:

23.2 Perfect Knowledge

There would be no need for farm management experts if knowledge was perfect. If there were so technology, prices and institutional behaviour would be known with certainty for any period of time in the nature. But the concept of perfect knowledge is a fallacious one and does not represent the real world situation.

22.1 Farm Planning

It refers to setting the objectives and actions to be taken in directing or controlling the organisation of farm business and it precedes all other managerial functions on the farm to achive the desired results. It is deciding in advance to the production management problems viz. what to produce, how to produce, when to produce, financial management problems viz how to borrow, how much to borrow, when to borrow, from where to borrow and marketing management problems viz, where to buy, and sell, when to buy and sell, how to buy and sell ete. Farm planning governs the survival progress and prosperity of farm organisation in a competitive and dynamic environment. It is a continuous and unending process. Farm planning is as old as farming itself but mainly it uses the farmal planning.

21.1 Cost Principle

 We know that

 TC = VC + FC

 and Net Revenue = TR-TC.

In the short run, gross revenue (G.R.) must cover the V.C. The maximum net revenue is obtained when MC = M.R. If GRs VC, the guiding principle should be to keep increasing production as long as MR > M.C. In the short run, MC = MR point may be at a level of input use that may involve a loss instead of profit. Yet at this point, the loss will be minimised.This situation of operating the farm when MR > AVC but

 

 

20.1 Introduction

The farm management is the science which concerns with making decisions and choices about combining different enterprises and the optimal utilisation of resources available. It is necessary to understand the typical farming decisions. Decisions can be classified into agricultural management decisions, administrative management decisions and marketing management decisions which are discussed below:

20.2 Organisational Management Decisions

These are further sub-divided into operational management decisions and strategic management decisions.

19.1 Introduction

The farm management comprises of two words: ‘farm’ and ‘management’. Literally ‘farm’ means a piece of land where crops and livestock enterprises are taken up under a common management and has a specific boundaries. ‘Management’ means the act or art of managing, the agricultural production or enterprises etc.

17.1 Introduction

Factor-factor relationship is concerned with the possibility of substituting one input factor (X1 ) for another input/factor (X2 ) for producing a given level of output. It answers the crucial question of finding out the optimum or least cost combination of two or more resources in producing the given amount of output. The two fold objective of factor-factor relationship is:

 

In production one or a combination of the following relationship are commonly observed:

1. The law of constant marginal returns (productivity)

 2. The law of increasing marginal returns (productivity)

 3. The law of decreasing marginal returns (productivity)

14.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we have to present the review matters related to the theory of the “Classical Linear Regression Model (C.L.R.M.) and Testing of Significance of Statistical Hypothesis”. Here, I have to provide the references about the topics and the names of the books from where the readers can refer about the availability of the subject matters (preliminaries, procedures and interpretations) of numerical results obtained through the statistical analysis carried out for the empirical studies considered there in.

13.1 Meaning of Dummy Variables

In econometrics, particularly in regression analysis, a dummy variable is also known as “Indicator variable or Binary variable or qualitative variable”. It is one which takes the value (0 or 1) to indicate the absence or presence of some categorical effect that may be expressed to shift the outcome, e.g.

i) Literate (1) and Illiterate (0)

 ii) Male (1) and female (0)

iii) Farmers in a cross sectional data in terms of year with normal weather condition (1) and year with abnormal weather condition (0).

12.1 Introduction

There is no other pair of words except the pair “Multi-Collinearity” which is more misused both in “Econometric Texts” and in “Applied Literature”. In many practical problems, many of our explanatory variables are found to be highly correlated among themselves.

One of the assumptions of the “classical linear regression model (CLRM) is that there is no “Multicolinearity” among the regressor variables included in the regression model.

 

11.1 Introduction

The term “regression” literally means moving back towards the average. It was first introduced by the British biometrician Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911). in connection with the inheritance with the stature.

a) Definition

Regression analysis is a mathematical measure of the average relationship between two or more variables in terms of the original units of data.

In regression analysis, there are two types of variables. The variable whose value is influenced and is to be predicted, is known as the dependent (or predicted/ response explained) variable and the variable that influences the values of the dependent variable or is used for prediction purposes, is known as the independent (predictor/explanatory/ auxiliary/ regressor) variable.

10.1 Introduction

Least square theory is a statistical technique used to estimate the parameters involved in the regression model in such a way that the sum of squares of errors (residuals) is minimum (least). We have generally two methods of estimation of population parameters. These are (i) Ordinary least square (O.L.S.) method and (ii) Maximum likelihood (M.L.) method. The method of ordinary least square (O.L.S.) is used extensively in regression analysis primarily because it is intutively appealing and mathematically much simpler than the method of maximum likelihood estimation (M.L.E.). In the context of lineaer regression analysis, the two methods generally give similar results.

9.1 Introduction and Definition

Literally, econometrics means “Economic measurements”. Although measurement is an important part of econometrics, the scope of econometrics is much broader. Econometrics is an amalgam of economic theory, mathematical economics, economic statistics and mathematical statistics. It can also be stated that “Econometrics consists of the application of mathematical statistics to economic data to provide empirical support to the model constituted by mathematical economics and to obtain numerical results from such data.

8.1 Matrix

An arrangement of m×n elements into m rows and n columns is called a matrix. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers usually represented by enclosing the array in brackets.

Order of a Matrix : The number of rows and columns is called the ‘dimension’ or ‘order’ of the matrix.

 

7.1 Introduction

The integral calculus is concerned with the opeartion of “integration” which is the reverse process of differentiation. If f '(x) represents the differential coefficient of f '(x), then the problem of integration is to find f(x) from f '(x).

7.2 Integration of a Function Containing a Constant

If we integrate a function containing a constant factor, this factor must also be a factor of final integral.

6.1 Introduction

Let

v : Represents the volume of a gas.

p : Represents the pressure of a gas.

t : Represents the absolute temperature.

The law is represented by the relation writen as t v k. p ? where k is a constant.

1. Suppose the temperature varies and pressure remains constant then

2. Suppose the pressure varies and temperature remains constant then

4.1 Introduction

There are some mathematical tools that are applicable in solving the mathematical problems related to the subject matter on “Economic Theory”. Differential calculus is one of those mathematical tools. Hence the useful theory of differential calculus will be discussed in this chapter.

4.2 Differentiation

The mathematical term “Differentiation” is involved in finding the rate at which a variable quantity changes.

In the theory of “Differential Calculus” we are concerned fundamentally with the “Rate of Variation” in a function y = f(x) with respect to the change in other variable (Independent Variable X) on which the dependent variable ‘Y’ depends through a relation Y = f(x).

3.1 Definition

 Let f (x) be the function of a random variable ‘x’. If there exists a number ' ' ?

 such that f(x) may be made as close to ' ' ? as we proceed to choose x close to

 a given number ‘k’, then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches to k, is ' ' ?

 and we write it symbolically as

 x k

 limf(x)

 ?

 ??

 Example 3.1 : We are giving some examples as below:

 Example 3.1.1 : A function f (x) may become infinite as x tends to a value ‘c’

 and we write that

 x c

 limf(x)

 ?

 ??

 Example 3.1.2 : Consider the function 1 f(x) x ? . Then we say that as x ??,

 f(x) tends to zero and write it as :

 x

 1 lim 0

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

Even though the great Indian author Surpala mentioned in his epic ‘Vriksha ayurveda’ (Science of Tree growing) about the value of incorporation of earthworms in soil for better propagation of pomegranate plants in 10th century AD, but Sir Charles Darwin’s recognition to earthworms as ‘Farmer’s friends’ in 1837 in fact, inspired researchers throughout the world to study the role of earthworms in soil ecosystem.

Earthworms are defined as soft, bilaterally symmetrical, tubular segmented worms which contain clitella gland, prostomium lobe in front of mouth and anus at the posterior end. The entire body is divided externally into a series of distinct segments. Scientifically these terrestrial worms are classified under phylum ‘Annelida’ due to presence of annuli or ring segments and class ‘Oligochaeta’ due to presence of few setae or hair like structure on all segments except the first and last ones.

Startup India, the initiative of Government of India, was first announced by Honourable Prime Minister Mr Narendra Modi during his Independence Day speech on 15 August, 2015 and discussed elaborately again on 27 December 2015 in his radio address ‘Maan ki baat’ mentioning startup as new opportunities for the youth who want to set up new business or innovative projects. Indian Government lunched this ‘Startup India – Standup India’ campaign on 16 January 2016 with an intention to build a strong startup ecosystem for nurturing innovation and encouraging private investment.

Solid waste disposal has become Nation’s great concern since after spending more than 50 percent of their budget by Municipalities, they could collect and dispose about 70% of MSW leaving many parts of the municipality unclean every day and residents are not at all satisfied (Sannigrahi, 2016). The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) collected data from 299 cities of India on the mode of collection of MSW and found that manual collection comprised 50% while collection using trucks comprised only 49% (CPCB Report, 2000). It is very interesting to note that majority (more than 90%) of MSW are disposed by dumping in unscientific open land filling on outskirts of towns and cities while 10% of collected and 2% of uncollected MSW are burnt in open condition.

The harmful impact of chemical pesticides and fertilizers like gradual low productivity of land, growing nutrient imbalance in cultivated soils, accumulation of high pesticide residue in food materials, increasing resistance of harmful pests towards chemical pesticides and continuous increase in environmental pollution are forcing farmers to adopt organic or sustainable farming by considering vermicompost as possible substitute to the costly chemical fertilizers during crop cultivation. Gradual awareness among common people on organic farming, large availability of organic wastes in both rural as well as urban areas, more avenues of vermicomposting training, global market for organically produced foods and ever increasing unemployment problem have opened up greater prospects of commercial vermicomposting (Sannigrahi, 2012).

Vermicompost is the result of the biooxidation and stabilization process of organic wastes by joint action of earthworms and microbial decomposers. In this process all nutrients present in organic wastes are transformed to plant available forms. Earthworms also secret various plant growth hormones along with polysaccharides, proteins and other nitrogenous compounds. Vermicompost, therefore, improves aeration, soil structure, nutrient availability, water holding capacity, ground biodiversity and nutrient efficiency, enhancing germination, growth and yield of crops. As compaired to farm yard manure, vermicompost contains 40 to 60% higher levels of humic substances and is superior in quality than conventional composts. The effect of humic substances is more prominent in stimulating root respiration, formation and growth, which in turn improves upper growth including the shoots, leaves, flowers and fruits (Theunissen et al., 2010).

Municipal solid wastes (MSW), the wastes generated in municipality area, are complex heterogenous in nature due to its collection from different places like residence, markets, institutes, hotels, etc., together before disposal. As per Hazardous waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989 and Bio medical wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998, the industrial wastes generated in various factories and biomedical wastes generated in hospitals and nursing homes should not be dumped in MSW collection site as disposal process for those wastes are different as directed by Government of India in those rules. But those wastes produced by smaller units are discarded in street dustbin, which make disposal problematic.

Vermicomposting is the rapid aerobic non-thermophilic composting technique for decomposition of various biodegradable wastes using epigeic earthworms in comparison to other conventional pit or heap composting techniques. Earthworms fragment the half decomposed organic material, mix and promote microbial activity. Worm utilizes 5-10% of food for its body growth and excretes remaining portion as vermicompost. The action of earthworm is both mechanical and biochemical. Mechanical fragmentation of the half decomposed organic material to finer particles by earthworm in its gizzard helps to increase surface area of action by microbes and aeration inside bed. Biochemical action improves the enzymatic digestion, nutrient enrichment and change in organic and inorganic contents.

Composting means decomposing organic wastes. It is a safe, non-polluting and microbiological method for disposal and recycle of organic wastes by converting those to balanced plant food materials, commonly known as compost, the organic fertilizer. In other words, the mineralization and partial humifi cation of organic materials by the action of microorganisms under suitable condition is called composting (Figure 6.1). The organic wastes undergo different physical and chemical changes with the help of microbes like bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, etc. During composting the population of pathogenic microorganism reduces while that of benefi cial microorganism increases.

Production of any selected species of earthworm in a particular place adopting semi-natural condition is called vermiculturing. As discussed earlier in chapter 2 and 4, commercial production of certain earthworm species is essential to meet up the huge demand of earthworms for vermicomposting of organic wastes, for production of earthworm meal for pet animals, poultry and fish farming, for preparation of medicine and for their use in reducing toxic chemicals from soil and water, etc. Since during vermicomposting, earthworm multiplies in vermicompost beds, many people confuse between this two terms – vermiculturing and vermicomposing.

Solid wastes, the unavoidable consequences of civilization, are the useless and unwanted heterogeneous solid materials discarded by human being. Human greed is the major factor in creation of unwanted solid wastes. With increase in human population and its demands, there is an increase in production of various types of wastes. When human being did not come to the earth there was very little wastes like tree leaves, animal excreta or dead parts which nature used to digest and produces something beautiful every time. Still there are certain remote areas free from wastes where human being could not reach due to inaccessible condition of terrain, forests and islands. Now–a-days wastes are found even in the top of Mt. Everest or in the interior of Antarctica.

The importance of earthworms in agriculture and human health has been realized since prehistoric times. The famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) first described the importance of earthworm by calling them as “The intestines of the Earth”. The question, ‘How lime and charcoal from soil surface gets into lower layers?’ in the mind of Sir Charles Darwin (1809-1882 A.D.) ended up with the findings in 1837 that earthworms took those materials to lower layers and it played a significant role in formation of humified soil layer. He wrote in his book, “The formation of vegetable mould through the actions of worms” in 1881 that ‘The plough is one of the most ancient and most valuable of man’s inventions; but long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed, and still continues to be thus ploughed by earthworms.

India, the second most populous country in the world after China, is trying hard to provide basic needs like food, shelter, clothes, electricity and education facility to its 1,316 million people and to upgrade itself from the stage of ‘Developing economy’ to ‘Developed economy’. Table 1.1 depicts the trend of population increase from 1154 million to 1316 million during 2009 to 2018 with diminishing growth rate from 1.42% to 1.12%. Growing demand of ever increasing population has been met so far by over exploiting natural resources like land, water, fossil fuels, forests and mineral resources which resulted rapid unplanned urbanization, quick depletion of fossil fuels, more and more waste generation, alarming increase in environmental pollution, deforestation with loss of plant and animal species, desertification of cultivable land due to soil erosion, soil contamination & soil salinity and increase in health diseases due to malnutrition, starvation and environmental pollution.

9.1 General

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of biochar production, focusing on the environmental impacts of its production and utilization. LCA is a systematic approach used to evaluate the environmental burdens and benefits of a product or process throughout its entire life cycle. Biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from the pyrolysis or gasification of biomass such as agricultural crop residue, forest waste, unusual wood waste, etc., has gained significant attention as a potential sustainable solid waste management, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas mitigation, and soil amendment solution. However, understanding the environmental implications of biochar production is crucial for its sustainable implementation. The LCA approach is employed to evaluate biochar production’s different system boundaries and environmental performance, encompassing various stages such as biomass feedstock cultivation, the biochar production process, transportation, application, and end-of-life scenarios. This chapter explores the key elements of LCA, examines the methodologies employed in biochar LCA studies, and critically analyzes the environmental impacts associated with different biochar production pathways.

In order to assess the economic value of biochar, various factors need to be taken into account, including production expenses, market demand, potential income sources, and cost reductions. The economic worth of biochar can be determined by considering these factors.

8.1 Production costs

The cost of producing biochar can differ based on various factors such as the type of material used, the scale of production, the method of pyrolysis used, and the particular operational conditions.

i. Feedstock costs

• The cost of acquiring or producing biomass feedstock includes purchasing agricultural residues, forestry waste, or other biomass sources. Additional costs such as land, seeds, fertilizers, and harvesting should be considered using dedicated energy crops.

7.1 General

Science and technology have been advancing rapidly, but unfortunately, their impact has been largely negative. Pollution is not the only issue we face today, but also the depletion of fossil fuels, climate change, and excessive land degradation. The persistent presence of heavy metals in soil poses a significant threat to our planet. Many efforts have been made to remediate soils contaminated with toxic chemicals.

There are several issues that need urgent attention at the moment, and a solution is necessary to tackle them all at once. Biochar is a great option because of its numerous benefits, such as a large surface area, high porosity, high carbon sequestration rate, excess nutrients, and potential to produce syngas and bio oil. By using biochar, we can reduce the bioavailability of pollutants in soil, combat climate change by sequestering carbon, and reduce the use of fossil fuels by producing syngas and bio-oil. Additionally, biochar improves soil health, which can contribute to food security.

6.1 Characterization of solid pyrolysis products

 Biochar can be characterized for its utility as well as its energy usage. Thevarious characteristics of biochar can be categorized as follows:

i. Proximate analysis

 •            Raw moisture

 •            Hygroscopic moisture

 •            Volatile matter

 •            Ash content

 •            Fixed carbon content

 ii. Ultimate analysis

 •            Elemental compositions (C, H, N, O, S)

 iii. Physical properties

 •            True density

 •            Bulk density

 •            Porosity

 •            Dry matter

 •            Particle size

 •            Pore size

 •            Pore volume

 iv. Chemical properties

 •            pH-value

 •            Electrical conductivity

 •            Carbonate content

The classification of pyrolysis processes plays a crucial role in understanding and categorizing the various methods used for thermal decomposition of biomass, waste materials, and carbonaceous feedstocks. This chapter provides an in-depth overview of the classification schemes employed in the field of pyrolysis. It discusses the different factors considered for classification, including temperature, heating rate, feedstock, reactor configuration, and operating conditions. Understanding these classifications is essential for selecting the appropriate pyrolysis process based on specific objectives, feedstock availability, and desired product yields.

This chapter focuses on the design and performance evaluation of pyrolyzers, which are key components in producing biochar, biofuels, and other valuable products through the pyrolysis process. Pyrolyzer play a crucial role in converting biomass feedstock into desired end products, and their design greatly influences process efficiency and product quality. The chapter discusses various aspects of pyrolyzer design, including reactor types, operating conditions, heating methods, feedstock characteristics, and process optimization. It also explores performance evaluation methods to assess pyrolyzer efficiency, product yield, biochar quality, and energy consumption. The information presented in this chapter aims to provide researchers, engineers, and practitioners with valuable insights into pyrolyzer design and performance evaluation for efficient and sustainable biomass conversion.

3.1 Overview of pyrolysis technology

Pyrolysis is a process derived from the Ancient Greek words “pyro” meaning f ire and “lysis” meaning separation, which means separating by using heat or fire. This is a thermochemical conversion process that converts biomass into a useful intermediate liquid product, which can be further transformed into a hydrocarbon biofuel, oxygenated fuel additive, or substitute for petrochemicals. Pyrolysis is similar or overlapping with other thermochemical processes such as cracking, carbonization, torrefaction, destructive distillation, dry distillation, and thermolysis. It is not related to gasification, which involves chemical reactions with a gasification medium.

Biomass is a renewable and valuable resource that has many uses, including energy production, biofuels, and bioproducts. It’s made up of a complex mixture of organic compounds like cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, proteins, fats, and minerals, which can vary depending on the source and type of biomass. Understanding the composition and properties of biomass is essential for efficient use. In this chapter, we’ll provide an overview of how to analyze and evaluate biomass as a renewable energy source. We’ll cover various techniques and methodologies for analyzing biomass, including physical, chemical, and thermal properties. We’ll discuss the importance of biomass composition, moisture content, ash content, elemental analysis, calorific value, and other relevant parameters when assessing its suitability for energy conversion. Additionally, we’ll highlight the significance of biomass characterization in understanding biomass feedstock variability and its impact on energy production efficiency, environmental performance, and sustainability.

1.1 General

Biomass is a renewable and plentiful energy source with enormous potential to meet the rising demand for clean and sustainable energy solutions. This chapter offers an overview of biomass and its conversion technology, which includes various techniques to transform biomass into useful forms of energy like heat, electricity, and biofuels.

Biomass is an organic substance obtained from plants, animals, and microorganisms. It can be utilized as a source of energy or as a basic material in various applications. The energy in biomass is derived from photosynthesis, during which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into organic matter. Since it comes from living or recently deceased organisms, it is a sustainable and renewable resource. In terms of carbon dioxide emissions, biomass is considered a carbon-neutral energy source because the carbon dioxide produced during combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed by plants during their growth.

The capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain plant and animal production, maintain or 

enhance water and air quality, and promote plant and animal health (Doran and

Zeiss, 2000). A healthy soil may function is as follows:

• Sustain biological activity, diversity, and productivity

• Regulate, store of nutrients and cycle water and, decompose organic

matter

• Filtering and buffering, degrading, mineralizing, immobilizing, and

detoxifying organic and inorganic materials

• Inactivate toxic compounds, suppress pathogens, protect water quality,

and enhance catchment soil health.

Introduction

Climate change is threatening food security globally. Countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the tropical monsoon climate and poor coping capacity of the small and marginal farmers. Several agricultural practices like indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals and crop residue burning contribute to emission of greenhouse gasses leading to warming of the atmosphere. Sequestration of carbon both in the vegetation and soil is the most effective means of mitigating GHG emissions. There are several strategies of soil carbon sequestration which can be adopted at farm level. These include: conservation agriculture, biomass recycling, crop rotations and use of organic amendments. One of the recent developments is the conversion of crop residue biomass into biochar and using the char as a soil amendment rather than directly using the crop residues. Several studies show that biochar has a long life in soil and is more effective in sequestering carbon besides improving other soil properties like water holding capacity and nutrient availability. In Indian conditions, there is an immense scope for converting millions of tonnes of crop residues which are not used as fodder into biochar and use the same for enriching soil carbon.

Introduction

Productivity has increased as a result of the significant industrialization that has occurred in India during the past 40 years. However, it has also had detrimental effects on the ecology, particularly in India where soil contamination is progressively becoming more severe. In addition to the effects of man and land use, soil is constantly adapting changes in environmental conditions. A characteristic of soil pollution is the decrease in soil productivity brought on by the presence of soil pollutants. Some changes in the soil will be temporary and reversible, while others will be permanent. Pollutants in the soil have a negative impact on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil and decrease its production. Soil pollution is a result of a variety of factors, including pesticides, fertilizers, organic manure, chemicals, radioactive waste, abandoned food, clothing, leather goods, plastics, paper, bottles, tins, and corpses. Industrial waste contains chemicals including iron, lead, mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminum, cyanides, acids, and alkalis, among others, which either directly or indirectly enter the soil.

Introduction

Soil organic matter is an indispensible component of soil health management. It plays an important role in improving soil physical, chemical and biological environment. Soil health refers to the capacity of the soil in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties for maintaining ecosystem services. With respect to agricultural lands, soil health implies the capability of the soil towards improving crop growth and yield, while also supporting environmental sustainability. Some important determining properties of soil health maintenance are soil reaction, salinity or alkalinity, soil organic matter, soil texture, soil structure/aggregation, water holding capacity, porosity, internal drainage, and nutrient retention capacity. Simultaneously, the key properties maneuvering soil health are soil aeration, internal drainage, nutrient cycling, susceptibility to erosion etc. Except some of the basic properties (soil texture) and processes (soil erosion), most of the determinant properties and processes are maneuvered by the presence of soil organic matter. A healthy soil must have strong resistance to degradation processes and able to recover following a perturbation because of inherent resilience (Magdoff 2001).

Introduction

Rice straw is produced as a by-product of rice production at harvest. Agricultural Waste Burning (AWB) is a major contributor of air pollution in many countries, particularly in South Asia. Exposure to fine particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (micrometer), also known as PM 2.5, released by AWB can cause premature mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Brauer et al.,2012). Combine Harvesters used on the spring rice crop leave behind stubble and straw on the field (Sidhu et al., 2007). Farmers burn the rice residue while preparing the field for wheat sowing season that follows. Further, migrant labour from neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh has decreased (Sirhindi, 2019), and resulted in an increase in the cost of agricultural labour during the rice harvest season (Sharma,2018). Farmers find it both convenient and economical to burn residue to clear and prepare their fields for the next crop. In 2018, over 20 million metric tons of rice residue was generated in Punjab, of which almost 10 million metric tons was subject to open-air burning (MoA, 2019). The time window between rice harvesting and wheat sowing is just 20 to 30 days towards the conclusion of the Kharif season, which is one of the primary reasons of crop waste burning (Balwinder et al., 2016).