eChapters

Common name    :    English- Rangoon creeper
        Hindi- Madhumalti
        Odia- Madhumalati

Family    :    Combretaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a climbing shrub (Fig. 89 a), cultivated widely in gardens and distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a twining climber blooming profusely throughout summer and can reach up to 70 feet in tropical climate. The leaves are elliptic-oblong and 7-15 cm long. Flowers are scented, pink-white to reddish-white in colour and grow in pendent racemes with a very fast rate. The plant flowers and bears fruits in most parts of the year.

Common name    :    English- Common Cocklebur
        Hindi- Chhota dhatura/Ghagra
        Odia- Mendhaguli

Family    :    Asteraceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 90 a), found in cultivated lands, coastal dunes, water resources, roadsides, waste places and field edges. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant has large and broad leaves, light and bright green in colour in an alternate pattern with irregular lobes. Stem turns maroon to black when mature, with hairy appearance. The flowers are white or green, numerous and covered with hooked bristles. The fruit is obovoid, 1.5-2.5 cm long and covered with hooked spines of 2-4 mm long. The plant flowers and bears fruits during August-September.

Fig. 25: ICPH 2671 in field

To overcome the challenge of popularizing pigeonpea hybrids in the country, it is considered fair enough to compare the hybrid rice with respect to their seed production technology, yield advantages and profitability to the farmers and seed producers. Since both pigeonpea and rice are grouped under self-pollinated crops, this comparison, in the views of authors, may help in encouraging hybrid pigeonpea seed producers and those involved in marketing of hybrid seed.
  
Rice is a highly self-pollinated crop and earlier hybrids were not possible because it was essential that large quantities of hybrid seeds are produced easily and economically. In China, the birth place of hybrid rice, this impossible looking task was accomplished. To launch this program, the Chinese scientists decided to alter the pollination system of rice.

With the advent of hybrid technology, it is natural to assess its potential benefits at the national level. To meet the domestic requirement of pigeonpea, about 50.000–60,000 metric tons of pigeonpea is imported annually from Myanmar and Africa. In this communication, an attempt has been made to look into the possibility if we can meet the entire domestic needs of pigeonpea through the adoption of hybrid technology. It is a big question but the goal is not impossible. The estimates shown in Table 18 show that if only 2% of total pigeonpea area can be brought under hybrids, the target can be met with ease. This will require seed production in only 700-800 hectares.

The hybrid breeding program in pigeonpea is unique and the first among the food legume. The concept of hybrid in this crop was conceived in 1974; and it is based on a small window of natural out-crossing present in the crop. This natural out-crossing in pigeonpea is mediated by a range of flying insects, which forage on large bright colored flowers of the crop in search of nectar and in the process affect the cross-fertilization. In the last 40 years a lot of basic and applied research has been successfully completed and over 50 research papers have been published in national and international journals of repute. A coordinated effort of scientists of different institutions has led to the release of two hybrids, one for central and another for peninsular zone of India.

In today’s times, a lot of innovation has come into agriculture. This very hard occupation requires an amalgation of farmers with the scientists. From the rural areas after education the technocrats are moving to the cities and this is creating a great loss to the agriculturists. As the population is growing so is the demand for food. Due to shortage in the storage systems the amount of wastage has increased a lot. It is an important aspect to be looked into. A lot of waste material is seen in the vegetable markets, city markets and near the slums. This causes a lot of pollution and spoils the environment. It is important to know why is it increasing and why the facilities for wastes do not exist.

After the agricultural activities a number of by-products are obtained and these are known as agricultural waste. These include residues of different crops like stalks, straws, leaves, roots, husks and shells. The animal waste is in the form of manure. All these agricultural wastes are free of cost however; they can be utilized as an important resource (Lionel and Arnold, 1931). Agrawal (1998) has mentioned India as the final dumpyard. The wastes obtained from various resources can be converted into heat, steam, charcoal, methanol, ethanol, biofuel, compost, energy, biogas, construction and high valued chemical compounds. Many times these agri-industrial wastes are not completely utilized and either they rot in open areas or are burned in the fields.

In the Asian and Pacific ‘region, it is China alone which produces the largest quantities of agricultural waste and also crop residues. This is followed by India. From the production of rice, corn and wheat alone 587 million tons of residues are generated per year in China. Maheshwari (2014) has surveyed the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products. In Myanmar the crop waste and residues constitute about 4 million tons per year out of which more than half constitutes rice husk.

There is no cereal in the world which has no immense patentability as in maize and that’s why it is called the “Queen of cereals”. It is the world’s leading cereals crop after rice and wheat. It is one of most important cereals of Nepal. At national level, it stands second position after rice in term of area and fourth in term of production after rice, potato and sugarcane. Maize is the most important cereals crop of hill and mid hills of Nepal. It is grown single as well as mixed cropping with millets or legumes or potato. Maize crop in hill is grown as rainfed farming. Generally, farmer of such region does not apply chemical fertilizer but they fertilize the land with organic manures in three seasons viz., rainy, winter and spring season. In rainy season it grown in upland while in spring season in low land. The winter maize is grown in Terai and inner Terai in low land as well as upland.

1.    Kernel type: Dent, Flint, Floury, Waxy, Sweet and Pop corn 
        •    Dent corn (Zea mays indentata Staurt.)
        •    Flint corn (Zea mays indurate Staurt.)
        •    Pop corn (Zea mays everta Staurt.)
        •    Sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Staurt.)
        •    Flour/soft corn (Zea mays amylacea Staurt.)
        •    Waxy corn (Zea mays ceatina Kulesh)

Maize is a tall, determinate annual C₄ plant varying in height from (1-4) meters producing large, narrow, opposing leaves (about a tenth as wide as they are long), borne alternately along the length of a solid stem. The botanical features of various plant parts are as follows: 

Root

Root system of maize consists of seminal roots, crown or coronal or adventitious or fibrous roots and brace, pop or aerial roots. Seminal roots - which develop from radical and persist for long period. Crown roots developing from the lower nodes of stem below ground level which are the effective and active roots of plant and.  Brace or prop roots, produced by lower two nodes. The roots grow very rapidly and almost equally outwards and downwards. Favorable soils may allow corn root growth up to 60 cm laterally and in depth.

Progeny test

Progeny trials involve large numbers of progenies of a family type, such as full-sib, half-sib, or S1 lines. The progenies are evaluated to identify those that may be used to generate synthetic or experimental varieties, or recombined to form an improved population in a recurrent selection program. Progenies in the trials are normally a random sample from the particular population under study. Therefore, data obtained from progeny trials may be used to estimate genetic variances and covariances from which heritability estimates, predicted responses to selection, genetic correlation coefficients, and correlated responses to selection may be obtained. Progeny trials are normally researcher-managed. Progeny trials involve complex field designs, such as balanced incomplete block, lattice, and alpha-lattice. Some examples of lattice are 11 × 11 for 121 progenies, 14 ×14, 16 × 16, etc. Because of the large number of entries, single-row plots with only 2–3 replications in a few environments are used in progeny trials.

Introduction
Project title:
Objective (S):

Scientific research is always based on observable and measurable facts. This applies to physical as well as humanitarian fields of science. In order to investigate social or psychological phenomenon, most of the times we need quantified information related to the phenomenon under investigation. In order to secure this data, we need one or more method/ means of collecting observable/measurable data.

t is the method of gathering the data by seeing, hearing and then recording the observation on the phenomenon/behavior of the respondent rather than the subjects’ self-reporting of the response.

It is not possible that every respondent is willing to and capable of giving honest and true response. Sometimes, it is practically not possible to make the respondent reveal about personal information, but true research requires true response. When direct stimuli fail to elicit true response, then we must use indirect and extractive methods to elicit the required response indirectly from the respondents, which further can be interpreted in the relevant format. This indirect and ambiguous stimulus based methods are known as projective methods. Projective methods are technique of data collection on the person, value, attitude, emotions and motives etc. by using a highly unstructured and ambiguous stimulus (Wilkening, Wilkening & Wilkening, 1973).

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

Plant nutrients are naturally components of the soil orchestrated by weathering processes and that the abundance of these metals in our soil environment now-a-days is due to numerous anthropogenic activities. In the environment, heavy metals are partitioned among the various environmental compartments such as water, soil, suspended solids and biota. Processes such as dilution, dispersion, sedimentation, adsorption and desorption govern their distribution. They also exist in colloidal ionic particulate and dissolved phases,  have a high affinity for humic acids, organic colloids and oxides coated with organic matter. The soluble forms are generally ions or unionised organo metallic chelates or complexes. The solubility of metals in soil and groundwater is predominantly controlled by pH, amount of metal, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon content, the oxidation state of the mineral components and the redox potential of the system.

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.

Toxic elements like Cadmium (Cd), Fluoride (F), heavy metals, radioactive metals are associated with mainly rock phosphates, other organic wastes like sewage sludge and pollutants. Their chemistry is similar to plant nutrients and replace them in their physiology leading to reduced uptake of nutrients, productivity and contaminated food chain.

January Thaw : A period of mild weather, usually following a cold spell, which often occurs in late January in the eastern regions of North America, particularly around the Great Lakes region, New England and the Canadian Maritime Provinces. The thaw is associated with a strong flow of warm air northward from the Gulf of Mexico on southerly winds on the back of a high pressure system.

Jet Stream : A relatively narrow band of high-speed winds, generally greater than 50 knots (57 mph or 93 kmph), found in the upper troposphere above regions of strong horizontal temperature contrasts such as fronts. The major jet streams are the subtropical jet and the polar jet stream.

Joule : The unit of work or energy. In mechanical systems, this is the work done when a force of one Newton displaces the point of application by a distance of one metre in the direction of force. In electrical systems, a joule is the equivalent of moving one coulomb through a potential difference of one volt. One joule is equal to one watt per second

Katabatic Wind : Downslope gravitational flow of the colder, denser air beneath the warmer, lighter air results and comprises the katabatic wind. It is also known as the drainage wind or mountain wind.

Kelvin Temperature Scale : An absolute temperature scale in which the zero point is absolute zero. The scale is based upon the triple point of pure water and the size of the degree is same as on the celsius scale. So the 273.16 K = 0°C. That means the freezing point of water is 273.16 K and boiling point of water is 373.16 K, etc. This is more commonly called as the absolute.

Q₁₀ : The number of times the rate of a process (physical, chemical or physiological) increases with a 10^ºC increase in temperature. If the rate of the process is doubled Q₁₀ is 2. Q₁₀ for respiration is 2 to 3.

Quantum : Unit of energy emitted by a photon.

Quantum Flux Density : The number of quanta from a source, incident on a unit area of a small surface situated in a perpendicular direction.

Quantum Irradiance : The number of quanta from a source incident on a unit area of a surface. This differs from the ‘quantum flux density’ as far as direction is concerned.

Xlokk : The name of a hot, dry wind that blows regularly in Malta.
X-rays : The electromagnetic radiation in the wave length region below 100 angstroms.

Year : The time taken by the earth to revolve once in its orbit round the sun.

Yellow Snow : Snow which has a yellow or golden colour due to the presence of pine or cypress pollen in it.

Zenith : The point directly overhead on the celestial sphere.
 
Zenith Angle : The angle formed by the local line perpendicular to the surface on which the radiation falls, and the position of the Sun in the sky from which the incident ray falls. 

The mode of action is the overall manner in which a herbicide affects a plant at the tissue or cellular level. The mode of action is the way in which the herbicide controls susceptible plants. It usually describes the biological process or enzyme in the plant that the herbicide interrupts, affecting normal plant growth and development. Herbicide may act on the life process of plant and dislodge the normal functioning of plants resulting in the death of plants. Herbicides  do damage of plants by inhibiting the biological process of plant as follows:

Abstract

Nutrition is basic to sustainable development being concerned with ensuring food at all times in terms of quality and quantity. As a bridge between food and health it interlinks several variables such as environment and protection from illness and disease, which helps to lead to an optimal quality life. Despite the substantial progress made in India’s food production, serious nutritional challenges continue to threaten her development in human resource development more so rural women are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition. Poor nutritional status of women during adolescence and their resultant vulnerability to anaemia during pregnancy contributes to a higher level of low birth weight children and if it happens to be girl child then the vicious cycle continues. Although food is available through markets at the district and village level, food security at the house hold level becomes a challenge because of lack of purchasing power. Women contribute significantly to agriculture production; on an average their contribution will be around 55-65 per cent. Hence, conscious effort is needed to develop an intervention strategy. One such strategy would be empowerment of women through transfer of technology, which will help in income generation especially during lean agriculture seasons. Priority areas in the field of nutrition for technology transfer would be processing, preservation and value addition of agro based crops. However, training is required for skill upgrading and capacity building of women.

Abstract

Although women were not recognized as essential components of Agriculture for a long time, of late due recognition has been given to the role of women in agricultural production and steps have been taken to bring more and more women farmers into main stream, through Shree Shakthi Sanghas and Self Help Groups for women. Special projects aided by outside agencies and voluntary organizations such as WYTEP, IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA etc. provide training to farm women.These operations include selection and treatment of seed, protection of the seed or plant material, land preparation, application of manures and fertilizers, sowing or planting, nursery raising, irrigation, weeding, earthing up, pinching or thinning, training and pruning top dressing, plant protection, harvesting, transport and post-harvest operations such as threshing, winnowing, sieving, cleaning, drying, grading, packing and storage, joining hands with men etc. They also do marketing and disposal of the produce. For household use they take care in hulling, flowering, pounding etc.

Abstract

Women become major players in creating sustainable livelihood in rural areas. Though they are the major work force compared to men in agriculture and allied areas, they are considered as invisible entity. Their contribution in total labour force itself is about 55 to 60 per cent. They play multiple roles both in and outside the home by ensuring food security and substantiating nutritional security to the family as a whole. Empowering these women with knowledge and skill to take up vocational income generating activities is prime need of the hour. Further, building their capacities on managerial skills, decision making, and technical competency is also equally important area of concern.

Abstract

Rural Indian women are extensively involved in agricultural activities and play a major role in agrarian scenario. Majority of the rural farm women are actively involved in various operations related to mixed farming system existing in India. Women and men participate in agricultural and animal husbandry practices as a family unit on the farms. Men perform major share of work quantitatively on agriculture side, where as on the animal husbandry side most of the management operations are being carried out by women in addition to their household activities. Dairy production is less influenced by rain failure compared to crops and is invaluable in sustaining family income during drought. Dairy development is now considered as an important tool for rural development or poverty alleviation. In fact, dairy farming occupies a special place in rural society with its linkage with religion and culture apart from providing sustained income. Most of the cattle and buffaloes are commonly kept in every farm household primarily for socio-economic reasons and more importantly for gaining drought power and as a secondary source of nutrition subsistence in the form milk and milk products for the whole family. In this context, a study was conducted in Karkala taluk of Udupi district with the major objective of studying the form and extent of participation of farm women in various operations of animal husbandry. The attempt made in this regard has revealed that rural women are fully involved in majority of the operations either as manual workers or as supervisors. Hence, it is suggested that for massive empowerment of rural women, animal husbandry programmes need to be launched as they are inherently profitable.

Abstract

Entrepreneurial training was offered to village women in the field of agriculture especially for women members of Self Help Groups. These women were trained in the production, utilization and marketing of Bio dung compost and vermicompost from agricultural wastes. They were also trained in the production, utilization and marketing of vermiwash (a liquid foliar spray), Panchagavya, biopesticides and herbal pest repellents using locally available plant materials. An attempt was also made to educate the people on the importance of food and nutrition through diet counselling and the importance of nutrient (kitchen) gardens. They were trained about Circular (Ring) Gardens and Double Digging gardens. The women were given these trainings as part of converting them from dependence on chemicals in agriculture to organic farming. There was overwhelming response, and the women now use these agricultural products in their own fields.

Abstract

Formulation  of  any  action  plan for women needs understanding of their  access  to  and  control over the resources. To have deep  insight into  this  aspect, a study  was  undertaken with 240  small  and  marginal  farm  women  randomly  selected  from  eight  villages  of  four districts  in  Andhra Pradesh  in  consultation  with  officials of agriculture department. Using an interview schedule, impediments  for development  of  farm  women  (social, economic, psychological, extension and technical)  were  collected  and  prioritized  through  matrix ranking.
To  overcome  social  and  economic  constraints, gender  mainstreaming  and  budgeting  are  now recognized as the most important strategies  for  women’s empowerment at all stages of any developmental  programmes. Such an approach necessarily aims at achievement  of  gender equality. Organizing capacity building programmes in managerial, entrepreneurial, negotiating and leadership skills improves risk taking  ability (psychological) and enhances active participation of farm women in developmental activities.

Abstract

Major occupation of women in Bijapur area is agriculture with an average land holding of 1-2 ha. Most of them are unaware of advantages of vermicompost. In recent times, dependence on agriculture is becoming very difficult for them. Majority of the women population in these areas are below poverty line (BPL), because of increased cost of production, and fluctuations in market prices of major crops grown by them. Erratic and ill distributed rain fall pattern makes life hard for them. The ill effects of chemical fertilizers have lead to interest in organic farming through vermiculturing using farm and urban wastes in order to produce risk free crop at reduced cost of cultivation.

Abstract

Empowerment strategy is today emerging as a unique Indian response to the challenge of equality and development. As per the population census, women constitute more than 50 percent of total population, but rural farm women are the most deprived in today’s world.  Farm women are poorest among poor. Even though they work the longest hours on farm and have achieved more with lesser resources, they are not recognized and appreciated for their contribution. In India 78 percent of all economically active women are engaged in agriculture. Almost 50 percent of rural female workers are agricultural labourers and 37 percent are cultivators. The rural poor also demand development through creating income generating activities for women in rural areas. Women empowerment gained momentum after independence through different governmental programmes such as education, creating income, self help groups, subsidy programs to women etc. Women can derive income from subsidiary enterprises such as dairy, duckry, poultry, etc., and preparation of vermi-compost, vegetable cultivation, preparation of jam, jellies, papads, pickles, embroidery, tailoring, honey bee keeping, kitchen garden, value addition and food processing etc.

Abstract

Women emancipation, women liberation, women awareness, women upliftment, women empowerment, gender equity etc. are the buzz words our media cashes on. But the question remains: What has made us all to talk about her in 21st century? Unfortunate, but true that women, constituting one half of the total world population, have been treated as second class citizens and denied even the basic rights. Men have dominated her by neglecting her talent, capabilities and potential. Many measures were undertaken by the Government for the betterment of the women such as the creation of National Commission for Women, Parliamentary Committee on Empowerment of Women, Gender Budgeting besides creating many disciplines in various institutions/Universities for women studies and passing several   pro women laws to protect her rights. But this is not enough. What is needed is the freedom from disability of any kind lying in the minds of various sections of the society. A woman need not be pitied but given the due she deserves.

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

Abstract

The green revolution concentrated only on a single enterprise, the crop.  Later on, developments in other enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, etc took place, however in an isolated manner.  Now it is essential to diversify the economic activities in an interdependent and integrated manner at micro level within the available resources. The system thus developed will be termed as integrated farming system approach.  This helps in generating sustained, stable farm income and higher employment. To achieve these objectives, several extension programmers were designed and conducted in integrated farming system demonstration undertaken by the Extension Education Unit of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in close association with other subject matter specialists. The programmes were implemented in selected taluks of Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka. One such case study is presented here.

Abstract

Women play a pivotal role in agriculture, in addition to the traditional role of nourishing progeny as mother and attending to the day to day needs of the home as housewife. Women also add to the family income as wage earners. While comprising half of humanity, contributing to two thirds of the world’s work hours, a woman earns only one third of the total income and owns less than one tenth of the world’s resources.  In a country like India which is the home  for over 400 million women, the economic status of women is in pathetic condition and they have always been discriminated against men in human resource development with  utter disregard to their actual and potential contribution to the national progress in general and agricultural progress in particular. The largest sector of India’s economy, agriculture, contributes to 37 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) and accounts for 60 percent of the employment.

Abstract

Self Help Group (SHG) has emerged as a new paradigm for combating poverty and self help promotion has become one of the major developmental strategy in the country today. The self help groups are motivated to take up suitable micro entrepreneurship for income generation either individually or in groups, which is dependent on the resource availability and their skills. The empowered SHG women have started different small enterprises such as papad making, malt preparation, different value added products, and other agro based industries which has increased their income. In recent years agro processing and value addition to the farm produce have attained great socio economic significance. A massive thrust to food processing and other agro based industries will add value to the product there by increasing the income of farmers, create employment opportunities, diversify rural economy and foster rural industrialization.

Abstract

The total Indian population is 1027.01 millions of which women account for 495.73 millions (2001 census). Women constitute about 48.27 percent of the population. The labour force participation of the women is 51.6 percent. In rural India, agricultural and allied activities employ as much as 89.5 percent of the female labour. Women have an active role and extensive involvement in livestock production, forest resource use and fishery processing. They contribute considerably to household income through farm and non-farm activities as well as through landless agricultural labours. They are deprived of exposure to knowledge and hardly participate in the process of decision-making. Female agricultural labourers are the poorest section of Indian society. Despite the women’s role in agriculture there has been a lack of adequate attention towards gender issue in the area of agriculture research.

Abstract

Role of women in agriculture is a well-known fact and is unquestionable. The changing trend in agriculture technology, use of modern tools, and wider participation of community is crucial in making farming activity as an attractive field of employment. While most of the young and male population is shifting to urban areas for wage based non-agriculture activity, women have to bear the burden of agriculture in villages. The drudgery faced by women in farm activiies need to be reduced and value addition to the farm products is required at home  scale/community scale in the villages. Newer and economically viable systems need to be introduced at village level with ample scope for women to participate in these activities. Women should not only be partners in agriculture but they also should take lead in entrepreneurship and in value addition. Further marketing systems for the products need to be established. 

A case study was made in Geemarahalli village, Nanjangud taluk of Mysore district during 2009-10 to know the performance of women SHG involved in cultivation of tuberose.  JSS Krishi Vigyan Kendra which was started during 1994 analyzed the problems of farmwomen that they were unorganized in doing the field operations and were almost isolated in nature.  KVK initiated in formation of women SHGs in many villages and one of such village is Geemarahalli.  Ms. Rajamma was selected as group leader of the group and her contact with KVK was started since 1996 and still continued.  She is an innovative woman despite being illiterate.  Earlier she was doing tailoring and wire bag making. Later, she developed an interest to take up farming. She formed a Self Help Group called Triveni in her village which consists of 15 farmwomen.  In the beginning, they were involved in farm operations as contract workers.  During 2007-08, this group had come in contact with KVK and were imparted the training programmes on vermicompost production, horticulture nursery management, production of biological agents etc.  Later, the group came forward to learn the cultivation aspects of tuberose which has got good market at Mysore city.  To start this venture, the possession of land was the constraint for them and they overcome it by taking a 10 gunta land on lease basis. They were imparted series of trainings on tuberose cultivation at KVK. 

• Introduction
• The Concept of a Farm Management System

Metals are toxic and non biodegradable pollutants released into the environment through effluents from agriculture waste, mining, metal processing industries, pharmaceutical industries as well as domestic and natural activities. Metallic pollutants tend to persist indefinitely and eventually get accumulated in the ecosystem. Metals especially arsenic, copper, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium and silver etc. possess a risk to living systems. Conventional processes applied to remediation of metallic pollutants are often restricted due to technical and economical constraints. Particularly when the metal contamination is at very low concentration the conventional methods become inefficient. In this situation application of bioremediation techniques is a technology of choice for environmental protection and clean up.

Change in weather affects growth and development of plants. The extent of these effects depends upon the range or severity of change of weather. It is very much possible to change the weather in relatively small area to reap better harvest. Micro weather modification is defined as, “The manipulation of weather elements at increasing or decreasing the duration, intensity, quality etc., for desired effects at microlevel of crop under investigation”.

The climate near the ground can be managed partly by influencing the moisture status and temperature of the upper soil layers, e.g. by mulching and partly by action above the ground e.g. by shading or use of wind breaks.