eChapters

11.1 Introduction

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, the world’s largest solar energy collector and storage system. By utilizing only a small portion of this energy, we can meet all the energy needs around the world. As long as the sun shines and there are natural ocean currents, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) energy source is free, abundant, and continually replenished. It is estimated that 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012 watts) of baseload power generation can be practically harvested without affecting ocean temperatures or the environment of the planet. this is about the twice the global demand for electricity. Oceans are therefore an abundant renewable resource, offering a sustainable method for the production of electricity in the future. 

9.1 Introduction

Hydrogen is colourless and odourless gas. Hydrogen is simplest and lightest element and most abundant available element on the earth. It is not primary energy source as it does not exist in free state however it presents in compound with oxygen (water) and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen in living material and fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and biomass). Therefore, hydrogen can be produced from these sources using some external energy. Hydrogen can be burned without generating CO₂ and have clean combustion. but with air it can form very explosive mixture. Hydrogen is considered as an energy carrier. Like energy carrier allows the transport of energy in usable form from one place to another. 

8.1 Introduction

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of biodegradable materials with the help of microorganisms. Biogas is also considered as renewable energy source because of is environment friendly nature. Conversion of cattle dung, kitchen wastes and agricultural wastes into biogas have the potential to minimize the burden on the fossil fuel and reduce the environmental pollution. Majority of developing countries specially their rural and suburban areas faces lack of access to the electricity and cooking gas. Biogas technology is emerging as a sustainable technology for waste treatment which could help to tackle the waste disposal issue in developing countries. 

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

6.1 Introduction

Biomass pellets are one of the most common types of biomass fuel. It is generally composed of wood waste, agricultural biomass, grasses, and forest residues, and is one of the most popular types of biomass fuel available today. Pelletization of biomass results in significant savings in terms of transportation, and storage, as well as the ease of handling biomass as a whole. In terms of flowability, dense cube pellets are similar to cereal grains in terms of their characteristics of being dense and cube-shaped. Due to their regular geometry and small size, biomass pellets are easily fed through an automatic feed system with fine calibration thanks to their regular shape. Because pellets are so dense, they can be stored in a compact way and transported over a long distance in a rational and efficient manner, because of their density. Furthermore, pellets can also be produced with a low moisture content, even though they are extremely dense. This allows them to burn with a high degree of combustion efficiency due to their low moisture content.

5.1 Introduction

Biomass energy is the energy obtained from biomass or living things. Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Plants generally produced through the process of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 5.1. Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living things, such as plants and animals. Wood, plants, and waste are the most common biomass energy sources. These are called biomass feedstocks. A plant absorbs the sun’s energy through photosynthesis and converts carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates). The energy from these materials can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect).

4.1 Introduction

The wind is caused by the motion of air. In different regions, there are pressure differences that cause winds. There is a tremendous amount of energy carried by them. The use of wind energy can be profitable in regions with strong winds for a significant part of the year. The wind is a form of solar energy. The wind is caused by uneven heating of air and land by the sun. The earth’s rotation and geological irregularities also play a role. Heating causes air to rise, and cooling causes cooler air to fall to fill the space. As a result, the air mass moves. On a global basis, the poles exert a primary forcing function that allows the equator to receive surface winds from the poles. 

3.1 Introduction

The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, which is referred to as solar radiation. Every location on the Earth’s surface receives some sunlight during the course of the year, but the amount of solar radiation varies. On a daily basis, we see much less energy from the sun than it emits and incident upon the earth. In an hour and a half, the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface of the earth is enough to provide enough energy for an entire year. 

2.1 Energy Consumption Pattern and Energy Resources in India

Energy is vital commodity in economic development of the world and any country. India also experienced a greater shift from non-commercial to commercial energy use after independence over the period. Industrialization and increased population has increased the consumption of commercial energy sources. The mechanization in agriculture and access to clean energy for household application also increased the consumption of the energy. however, the per capita energy consumption remains lower compared to the developed countries. In broader view, the energy used can be categorised in Non-commercial and Commercial energy sources that are used in India.

1.1 Introduction

The life on the earth is driven by the energy available in the various forms. Energy is the most crucial entity in development of the world. The sufficient and sustainable supply of energy is deciding factor in the global energy market. Solar energy from the sun is the basic source of energy on the earth which further manifest into the other energy forms. However, the fossil fuel energy is widely used energy on the larger scale on commercial basis due to its availability and technological advancement in handling these fossil fuels.

I. Decimal Multiples and Sub-Multiples

II. Description of Units

Mechanical Units

Electric and Magnetic Units

The esu and emu unit systems are cgs systems.

esu denotes “electrostatic unit”, sometimes given prefix “stat”, e.g. statcoulomb emu denotes “electromagnetic unit”, sometimes given prefix “ab”, e.g. abcoulomb Some emu units have special names:

Introduction

In the process of creating a hole in the metal surface through a drill, we use a drilling machine. We use a tapper shank and parallel shank to tie the drill to the drill machine. We can also use a drilling machine to do extra experiments i.e., tapping rimming counter shrinking and counterboring. In simple language, we also say that a, it is a machine which is wildly used over world for making a circular hole in various metal workpiece for making desired design or structure.

Introduction

The milling machine is one of the maximum flexible conventional system equipment with a huge variety of steel-reducing capabilities. Many complex operations along with indexing, multi-milling and saddle milling, etc. may be completed on a milling system. A milling device is a tool that cuts steel at the same time as the workpiece is fed closer to a rotating multi-element milling cutter. This machine can also contain one or greater knives at a time. That is why a milling device has extensive utility in production work. It’s better for other machines when it comes to precision and a better surface finish. It is also designed to perform a variety of jobs in the tool room.

Introduction

A planer machine is a commercial machine tool hired for transforming the metal blocks or metal workpiece into the desired calculated shapes by generating the flat surfaces on a workpiece. Similar to a shaper machine, a planer machine is used for forming flat surfaces on the work piece using the single-point cutting tool.Planer machines are generally hired for operation on the larger workpiece or metal structure (blocks) that cannot be achieved by the shaper machine. They generally have larger beds and larger reciprocating movements covering a greater working length and surface area as compared to shaper machines.

Introduction

Shaping machine, shaping machine is a heavy commercial machine used for generating flat surfaces on the workpiece as per the requirement. It is specifically designed to give the desired shape to the workpiece which can be flat, horizontal, or vertical as per the requirement.

The shaper machine is a reciprocating type of machine (that is, the machine that converts the rotatory motion into the linear motion) in which the tool reciprocates with the forward and backward stroke removing the metal form of metal chips and turning the Metal workpiece into the desired shape.

Introduction

It is considered to be one of the most ancient machine tools, having evolved from the early tree lathe, which was a new mechanism for turning and milling items held between two nearby trees at the time. The job rotated sporadically due to a rope wound around the work, with one end linked to a flexible limb of a tree and the other end being pulled by a worker. Then hand tools were employed.

The machine was given the name “lathe” when a strip of wood called “lath” was used to support the rope during its construction. This technology evolved over centuries, and in 1797, an Englishman named Henry Maudslay invented the first screw-cutting lathe, which is the ancestor of today’s high-speed, heavy-duty production lathe.

Introduction

A machine shop is a place with machining tools and supplies where hand and power tools are used to make, finish, refurbish, or repair machines and their parts. Machine shops come in helpful for repairing and fabricating a wide range of metal things.

Machining

Machining is the most extensive technological procedure in the manufacturing industry. 

Introduction

The procedure of making or building casting in the sand mould cavity or any other material is known as a foundry. This is the cheapest method of shaping the metal. Foundry exercise offers the technique of creating casting in moulds shaped in both sand or different material. A foundry is a manufacturing plant where castings are created by softening metal, emptying fluid metal into a shape, then, at that point, permitting it to harden. Regardless of whether we have not at any time been to a foundry or even know what one resembles, we are encircled by the metal castings. There is a decent possibility that we are perusing this under 10 feet from one.

Moulding

Introduction

Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more materials or metal pieces are joined or fused with the application of heat, pressure, or both allowing them to cool and this causes fusion. Besides the work piece, a filler material is also sometimes added to the joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a joint based on welding and that will be stronger than the parent metal.

Arc Welding and its Types

It is a process of joining two metals using an electric current generated by the power supply, which gives the required amount of heat to metal pieces through which the metals melt and when the metal cools, which results in the binding of the two metals. In the case of this type of welding, the power supply is given, which creates an electric arc between the electrode and the metal rod. Both A.C. or D.C. power supplies can be used in arc welding and both consumable and non-consumable rods can be used.

Introduction

A sheet metal shop is a kind of workshop where different types of materials are used to make sheet metal and then it is flattened into thin sheets of desired shape and size. Sheet metals are used for the production of automobile bodies, utensils, almirah and cabinet appliances, etc.Sheet metal parts have many advantages, like they are less expensive, lighter in weight and can be modified into versatile shapes. Low-carbon steel is commonly used. The use of casting and machining is being replaced by metal stamping. The stamping press is a kind of machine tool in which most of the operations occur, and the sheet metal products which are obtained by the machine are called stampings.

Study of Carpentry Hand Tool

Introduction

The process of making the wooden components is called carpentry. Carpentry deals with the mechanical work of making wood components such as making beds, roofs, wardrobes, tables, cases, utensils, floors, etc. It manages the structure work, furniture, cabinet making and so on joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the significant activities in all wood works.

The products produced are used in making furniture, musical instruments, and building constructions like doors, windows, desks, chairs, cupboards, etc., of a place utilizing a specific kind of wood with the help of tools known as carpentry tools. Different wooden pieces are connected to make a useful product. Wood is used to make furniture, boxes, doors, windows, industrial floors, stairs, pencils etc.

Regulations should make it easier to utilise creative, long-lasting solutions, allowing for the selection of the most environmentally friendly pest management method. This can be accomplished by using expedited registration, priority registration, and a combination of comparative evaluation of pest control techniques and the substitution principle, which allows a natural pest control technique to take the place of a synthetic pesticide.

Pest and pathogen incidence is a natural occurrence that frequently goes unreported. However, they become a concern when their spectra expand and cause significant losses. Chemical pesticides are now commonly used in agricultural techniques to lessen the impact of such severe damages. Without a question, the use of chemical pesticides has put human health, ecological health, and sustainability at danger.

The single piece of legislation under the Indian Government that regulates the import, manufacturing, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of all varieties of insecticides, including biopesticides, is the Insecticide Act (1968). Various parameters like shelf life, cross-contamination, moisture content, and packaging are significant factors that must be addressed before a biopesticide is registered. According to Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) recommendations, CIB simplified the protocols and listed the infrastructure needs for manufacturing of biopesticides. Information required to generate toxicity calls a strenuous effort.

Worldwide, various biopesticides have been created and are in use, including viruses, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.), microorganism derived products, animal derived goods (pheromones, hormones, insect-specific toxins, etc.), plant derived products, and genetically modified organisms (Nicholson 2007; Erlandson 2008; Mazhabi et al. 2011; Islam and Omar 2012).

A tremendous change in the Indian biopesticide industry and market has reflected on increased global trade in agricultural commodities, a healthy revolution in the consumers and stack-holders with adequate understanding on negative effective of chemical pesticides in plant protection. Currently biopesticides comprise approximately 3-5% of the Indian pesticide market, with at least 15 microbial species and 970 microbial formulations registered through the Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee (CIBRC).

Insecticide based plant protection in India as well as in the world resulted in wide variety of environmental and health issues. Insecticides although gave satisfactory control of target pests initially, have posed serious issues such as resistance, resurgence and residue and also contamination of water bodies, food chain leading serious ill effects in humans, mammals, soil beneficial microbiota etc. After thorough examination of scientific evidences and facts on ill effects of synthetic organic insecticides, much emphasis was given for biological control including parasitoids, predators, entomopathogens, biopesticides, microbial control etc. in order to overcome above ill effects.

Biopesticides are pesticides that are produced naturally by plants, animals, microbes, and other minerals. These represent less of a harm to humans and the environment than chemical insecticides. Nanotechnology is a rapidly developing scientific topic that has numerous uses in numerous industries, including agriculture. The transport of plant hormones, seed germination, water management, transfer of target genes, nano barcoding, nano sensors, and controlled release of agrichemicals are now being investigated as applications for nanotechnology in agriculture (Worrall et al. 2018).

Three kinds of biocontrol products are being used in India which include 1) Microbial biopesticides, 2) Plant-derived botanical pesticides, and 3) Pheromones or other natural insect growth regulators. Microbial biopesticides consist majorly of fungi, bacteria, viruses or entomopathogenic nematodes as bioactive principles.

The biocontrol use had almost completely disappeared due to the growth and success of the synthetic pesticide industry in the mid-1940s. The publication of Rachael Carson's 'Silent Spring' (Carson 1962) which condemned the use of agricultural pesticides and emphasized their harmful environmental effects on wildlife. Due to public outrage over this controversial book, there was a need for pesticide alternatives, which presents an opportunity for wider use of biological control (Barratt et al. 2010; Gay 2012).

Insecticides are one of the key control measures to combat the insect pests for sustainable agricultural production in the world. Synthetic insecticides have been only strategy to control the resurgent and resistant insect population in of high value crops not only in India but also in the world. The advent of synthetic insecticides in the mid-20th century made the control of insect and other arthropod pests easy and much more effective, and such chemicals remain essential in modern agriculture despite their environmental issues.

The world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050. This population growth of 2 to 3 billion people over the next 30 years, combined with the changing diets, would result in a predicted increase in food demand of around 70% by 2050 (UNDESA 2009).

Soil, climate and water decide the nature of crop to be grown in a particular region. While soil and climate can be manipulated to certain extent, there is no substitute of water. Water is governed by the hydrological cycle. The major source of water is rainfall which has been reduced over the years due to climate change. The per capita water availability in India was 4944 m3 in 1955 which has been reduced to 1750 m³ now and is expected to come down to 1500 m³ by 2025.

Soil is made up of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and micro-organisms in different proportions. It provides anchorage to plants. It is important for life as it provides the medium for the growth of a plant, habitat for several insects and other organisms. Soil is a store house of nutrients, micro-organisms, air and water. It is the source of four essential ‘living’ factors including food, clothes, shelter, and medicines.

Agriculture is a fundamental human activity that depends intrinsically on natural processes, including soil fertility, water recycling, and pollination, and both nature and agriculture are increasingly suffering the negative impacts of climate change (EEA, 2019). At the same time, unsustainable agriculture also poses a major threat to biodiversity (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2014), negatively affects the state of our soil and water, and is an important contributor to climate change (Jia et al., 2019).

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather pattern triggered by greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. It is caused by natural factors like continental drift, volcanoes, earth’s tilt, and ocean current or manmade factors like urbanization, industrialization, burning of fossil fuel, deforestation and faulty agricultural practices.

Conservation Agriculture Conservation agriculture is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems, for improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. It is a set of technologies, including minimum disturbance, permanent soil cover, diversified crop rotations, and integrated weed management (Reicosky and Saxena, 2007; Hobbs et al., 2008, Friedrich et al., 2012).

Food security is achieved when adequate food is available and accessible and satisfactorily used and utilized by all individuals to live a healthy and active life. But food and nutrition security is achieved when people have physical, economic and social access to food of sufficient quantity in terms of variety, diversity, nutrient content and safety to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life coupled with sanitary environment, adequate health and education care. In order to achieve food and nutrition security there is a need for transitioning toward nutrition sensitive food system.

Natural resources are naturally occurring resources which can be exploited for economic gain. They include raw materials such as fuels, minerals and metals, soil, water, air, sunlight, land, biomass and ecosystems. Natural resources also include living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) materials. Natural resources are gifts of nature for the humankind.

Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farm families and influenced by varying degrees of political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels. In farming system there is integration of farm enterprises such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, sericulture, poultry etc.

Insects and mites that damage crops, pathogens that cause diseases in plants, weeds that compete with field crops for nutrients and water, plants that choke irrigation channels or drainage systems, rodents that eat young plants and grain, and birds that eat seedlings or stored foodstuffs are all crop pests. As plants were domesticated and grown, increasingly in monoculture, the potential damage caused by their co-evolved pests and disease pathogens were realised.

Alternative agriculture is a production system that follows the concept of agroecology and does not use conventional methods. Natural farming, Bio-dynamic farming, Organic farming, Permaculture, Homa farming and many others are considered as alternative agriculture. In spite of some differences, these practices aim at preserving the environment and minimise the use or avoid synthetic agrochemicals. They rely on natural cycles, by using crop rotations, cover crops or no-tillage, etc.

Modern farming system was aimed to maximise crop production by use of high yielding crop varieties or hybrids and application of agro-chemicals like fertilisers and pesticides along with irrigation and better crop production technologies. But without consideration of its impact on the environment and economics of the farmers, the monoculture of rice and wheat with agro-chemicals caused land degradation, soil and water contamination, gene erosion and environmental pollution.

Agriculture depends mainly on natural resources like land situation, soil, water and a favourable climate. Continuous agricultural practices adopted without conservation of such precious resources may lead to unsustainability of growth in agriculture. Conservation of these resources and their sustainable use with appropriate measures would be required for a sustainable agriculture.

According to the Indian economic survey of 2018, more than 50% of the Indian workforce is employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture contributed to 17–18% to the country’s GDP. Agriculture’s share in India’s economy is less compared to the industrial and services sectors. The industrial and service sectors have higher growth rates. The significance of the agricultural sector in India’s economic and social growth goes well beyond. Nearly 60% of India’s families depend on rural incomes. In addition to this, the majority of India’s poor population (around 70 %) lives in rural areas. Also, as the population is growing at a fast rate, food security in India depends on producing cereal crops and in increasing the production of fruits, vegetables and milk to sustain the needs of a growing population. To achieve this we need a productive, diversified, competitive, and sustainable agricultural sector. India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, spices and milk. It has the world’s largest cattle herd and the largest area under wheat, rice, and cotton. India is also the second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep & goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea.

1-1. Identify the current state of environmental policies in Indian agriculture and the challenges faced in their effective implementation.

1-2. Evaluate the importance of implementing environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to ensure sustainable development.

1-3. Analyze key international standards, such as ISO 14001 and EMAS, and how they can be applied in the context of Indian agriculture.

1-4. Compare and contrast best practices and case studies of companies and organizations that have successfully implemented environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to draw insights and lessons learnt from them.

Remotely gathered data are available from a range of sources and data collection techniques is often one type of tool that is not always found within the public domain easily. This is larger due to the fact that most of the data are acquired by equipment is expensive to build and maintain. However, there are many types of basic imagery, high-quality imageries are readily available widely at subsidized costs, particularly the purpose intented.

In beginning of aerial photography, the photos were taken to evaluate existing topography, plan observation and sampling incursion. After World War II, the assessments of aerial photographic data were much more difficult, and real geological data started to be extracted. The use of stereoscopic pairs enabled geologist to explain height structural features. But, the basic use of remote sensing data were collected was in explanation. These trends of comparative photography until development took place into the satellite age when satellite imagery began popular and commercially available. The availability of various imageries in several combinations opened a option to analyze regions in much more detail. Apart from this, the multiple flying allowed a prospect to be viewed in various light during differnt seasons. The development drastically decreased the cost of regional exploration by minimizing repeated trips to a place for reassessing. This permitted data to be gathered from the tropics and arid regions that was previously difficult task in wide regional field exploration. As computer age progressed being developed and enhanced the value of data that allows imagery as digitally highlighted specific features. Ground features like differential cropping, drainage patterns, and folds/faults may be identified.

The information of image is perfectly accepted by eyes when the image will be in convenient form. Always pictures accurately detail about information related to their position, sizes and inter-related with each other is objects. Actually images portray positional information which can be recognized as objects. Human eyes are exact example for differentiating that information from images to innate visual and mental ability.